Unit-1, Electrical Power Quality 4-1, June 2019

RAGHU INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
(AUTONOMOUS)
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL &
ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING
IV B.TECH I SEM
Electrical Power Quality
UNIT-I Prepared By
Dr. D.V.N. Ananth
Asst. Professor
EPQ DR.D.V.N. Ananth EEE
 CONTENTS
Unit–I: Introduction
Overview of power quality – Concern about
the power quality – General classes of
power quality and voltage quality problems –
Transients – Long–duration voltage
variations – Short–duration voltage
variations – Voltage unbalance – Waveform
distortion – Voltage fluctuation – Power
frequency variations.

References:
 Electrical Power Systems Quality, Dugan R C, Mc-
Granaghan M F, Santoso S, and Beaty H W, Second
Edition, McGraw–Hill, 2012, 3rd edition.
 Electric power quality problems –M.H.J.Bollen IEEE series-
Wiley India publications,2011.
 Power System Harmonics, Arrillaga J and Watson N R,
Second Edition, John Wiley & Sons, 2003.
 Power Quality c.shankaran, CRC Press, 2001

What is a Power Quality Problem?
“Any occurrence manifested in voltage,

current, or frequency deviations that results
in failure or mis-operation of end-use
equipment.”

Is Power Quality Such a Big
Problem?

Why PQ is such a Big Problem?
 The sensitivity of today’s electronic equipment
makes it susceptible to power disturbances
 For some devices, a momentary disturbance can
cause
 scrambled data
 interrupted communications
 a frozen mouse
 system crashes and equipment failure

What does that mean?
It’s dependant on your susceptibility.
Given the quality of supply do I have to worry

about problems with my equipment or systems?

Typical Financial Loss Per Event
Industry Typical Loss
Financial $6,000,000/event
Semi-conductor mfg. $3,800,000/event
Computer operations $750,000/event
Telecommunications $30,000/minute
Data processing $10,000/minute
Steel/heavy mfg. $300,000/event
Plastics $10,000-15,000/event
Source: The Cost of Power Quality, Copper Development Association, March, 2001

Sources Of Power Problems
Referenced at the utility PCC (point of common coupling)
 Utility
• lightning, PF correction caps, faults, switching
• impact from other customers
 Internal to the facility
• individual load characteristics, motors, ASDs
• computers, microprocessors
• wiring
• changing loads
Typically, 70% of all PQ events

are generated within the facility

Types Of Power Quality Disturbances
(per IEEE 1159)
•Transients
•RMS Variations
•Short Duration Variations
•Long Duration Variations
•Sustained
•Waveform Distortion
•DC Offset
•Harmonics
•Interharmonics
•Notching
•Voltage Fluctuations
•Power Frequency Variations
Types of Power Quality Problems
Voltage
Swells Transients
29% 8%
Interruptions
3%
Voltage
Sags
60%

Power Quality- Overview
There are different definitions for power quality.
•Utility defines-- power quality is reliability.
•Load aspect defines--the power supplied for satisfactory
performance of all equipment i.e., all sensitive equipment.
•End user defines-- “any power problem manifested in
voltage, current, or frequency deviations that result in
failure or mis-operation of customer equipment”
•Therefore, the standards in the power quality are related
to maintaining the supply voltage within certain limits.

Power Quality- Overview
• In IEEE dictionary, power quality is defined as “the
concept of powering and grounding sensitive equipment
in a matter that is suitable to the operation of that
equipment”.
• IEC (International Electro-technical Commission), it is
defined as, “ set of parameters defining the properties of
the power supply as delivered to the user in normal
operating conditions in terms of continuity of supply and
characteristics of voltage (magnitude, frequency,
waveform).

Power Quality- Introduction
• Power quality is any abnormal behavior on a power
system arising in the form of voltage or current, which
affects the normal operation of electrical or electronic
equipment.
• Power quality is any deviation of the voltage or current
waveform from its normal sinusoidal wave shape.
• Power quality has been defined as the parameters of the
voltage that affect the customer’s supersensitive
equipment.

Power Quality- Introduction (contd..)
•Voltage sags are considered the most common power
quality problem.
•These can be caused by the utility or by customer loads.
When sourced from the utility, they are most commonly
caused by faults on the distribution system.
•These sags will be from 3 to 30 cycles and can be single
or three phase.
•Depending on the design of the distribution system, a
ground fault on 1 phase can cause a simultaneous swell on
another phase.

Power Quality- Introduction (contd..)
• Power quality problems are related to grounding, ground
bonds and neutral to ground voltages, ground loops,
ground current or ground associated issues.
• Harmonics are distortions in the AC waveform. These
distortions are caused by loads on the electrical system
that use the electrical power at a different frequency than
the fundamental 50 or 60 Hz.

Power Quality Problems
• Power quality problems are
o Voltage sag
o Voltage swell
o Voltage Flicker
o Harmonics
o Over voltage
o Under voltage
o Transients

General Classes of Power Quality Problems
 The IEEE Standards Coordinating Committee 22 (IEEE
SCC22) has led the main effort in the United States to
coordinate power quality standards.
 The IEC classifies electromagnetic phenomena into the
groups as given below.
(i) Conducted low-frequency phenomena
 Harmonics, inter-harmonics
 Signal systems (power line carrier)
 Voltage fluctuations (flicker)
 Voltage dips and interruptions
 Voltage imbalance (unbalance)
 Power frequency variations
 Induced low-frequency voltages
 DC in ac networks
General Classes of PQ Problems (contd..)
(ii) Radiated low-frequency phenomena
 Magnetic fields
 Electric fields
(iii)Conducted high-frequency phenomena

 Induced continuous-wave (CW) voltages or currents
 Unidirectional transients
 Oscillatory transients
(iv) Radiated high-frequency phenomena

 Magnetic fields
 Electric fields
 Electromagnetic fields
 Continuous waves
 Transients
(v) Electrostatic discharge phenomena (ESD)
(vi) Nuclear Electromagnetic Pulse (NEMP)
What is “Good Power Quality”
• if the voltage:
 has a constant sine wave shape with fundamental
frequency only
 is supplied at constant frequency
 forms a symmetrical three-phase power system
 has a constant RMS value, unchanged over time
 is unaffected by load changes
 is reliable, i.e., energy available when required

Categories and Characteristics of Power
System Electromagnetic Phenomena:

Power Quality - Voltage Quality
 It is actually the quality of the voltage that is being addressed in
most cases.
 Technically, in engineering terms, power is the rate of energy
delivery and is proportional to the product of the voltage and
current.
 The power supply system can only control the quality of the
voltage; it has no control over the currents that particular loads
might draw.
 AC power systems are designed to operate at a sinusoidal voltage
of a given frequency [typically 50 or 60 hertz (Hz)] and magnitude.
 Any significant deviation in the waveform magnitude, frequency, or
purity is a potential power quality problem.

1. The current resulting from a short circuit causes the voltage
to sag or disappear completely, as the case may be.
2. Currents from lightning strokes passing through the power
system cause high-impulse voltages that frequently flash
over insulation and lead to other phenomena, such as short
circuits.
3. Distorted currents from harmonic-producing loads also distort
the voltage as they pass through the system impedance.
Thus a distorted voltage is presented to other end users.
 Therefore, while it is the voltage with which we are ultimately
concerned, we must also address phenomena in the current
to understand the basis of many power quality problems.

 Which term to use for utility-customer (system load) interactions
 One cannot talk about the quality of a physical quantity like power
 The IEEE definition of power quality: Power quality is the concept
of powering and grounding sensitive equipment in a matter that is
suitable to the operation of that equipment.
 The IEC definition of electromagnetic compatibility:
Electromagnetic compatibility is the ability of an equipment or
system to function satisfactorily in its electromagnetic environment
without introducing intolerable electromagnetic disturbances to
anything in that environment.

Voltage quality
 Concerned with deviations of the voltage from the ideal –
single-frequency sine wave of constant frequency and
constant magnitude
 It covers only technical aspects
 Current distortions are reflected in voltage distortion
(impedance)
 Regularly used in European publications
 interpreted as the quality of the product delivered by the
utility to the customers

Current quality
 Complementary definition – deviations of the current
from the ideal
 Additional requirement, current is in phase with the
supply voltage
 Current quality is concerned with what the consumer
takes from the utility
 If either current or voltage deviates from ideal it is hard
for the other to be ideal

Power quality
 Combination of voltage quality and current quality
 Deviations of voltage and/or current from the ideal
 Power quality has nothing to do with deviations of the
product of voltage and current (the power) from any ideal
shape

Important Definitions-Basics
• Quality of supply
o Includes technical part (voltage quality) plus a
nontechnical part sometimes referred to as “quality of
service” – the latter covers the interaction between the
customer and the utility
o Customer responsibilities are not included
o European approach
• Quality of consumption
o Complimentary term of quality of supply
o would contain current quality
o How accurate the customer is in paying the electricity bill

Electromagnetic compatibility (EMC)
• used in IEC standards
• Mutual interactions between equipment and Interactions
between equipment and supply
• Two important terms are used
• “emission” is electromagnetic pollution produced by a
device
• “immunity” is device’s ability to withstand
electromagnetic pollution
• Emission is related to the term current quality
• Immunity is related to the term voltage quality

What is a Transient?
Momentary (& undesirable) high frequency sub-cycle
“event”
 Usually measured in microseconds
 May also be called a Spike, Surge or Impulse
 Classification:
 1. Impulsive and
 2. Oscillatory
 Characteristics of a Transient:
• Rise time (dv/dt)
• Ring frequency
• Point-on-wave
• Multiple zero crossings
• Magnitude

Transients
It is an event that is undesirable and momentary in nature. It is the sudden
change in one steady state operating condition to another.
 Transient over voltages in electrical transmission and distribution networks
result from the unavoidable effects of lightning strike and network switching
operations.\
 Response of an electrical network to a sudden change in network
conditions.
 Oscillation is an effect caused by a transient response of a circuit or system.
It is a momentary event preceding the steady state (electronics) during a
sudden change of a circuit.

Transients
 An example of transient oscillation can be found in digital
(pulse) signals in computer networks.
 Each pulse produces two transients, an oscillation resulting
from the sudden rise in voltage and another oscillation from
the sudden drop in voltage.
 This is generally considered an undesirable effect as it
introduces variations in the high and low voltages of a
signal, causing instability.

Impulsive Transient
 An impulsive transient is a sudden non–power frequency change in the
steady-state condition of voltage, current, or both that is unidirectional in
polarity (either positive or negative).
 Impulsive transients are normally characterized by their rise and decay
times.
 Impulsive transients can excite the natural frequency of power system
circuits and produce oscillatory transients.
 Impulsive transients are normally characterized by their rise and decay
times, which can also be revealed by their spectral content.
 For example, a 1.2 X 50µs 2000-volt (V) impulsive transient nominally rises
from zero to its peak value of 2000 V in 1.2 µs and then decays to half its
peak value in 50 µs.
 The most common cause of impulsive transients is lightning.

Impulsive Transient
 Source: lightning
 high frequencies involved,
 the shape of impulsive transients -changed quickly by
circuit components
 significantly different characteristics when viewed from
different parts of the power system.
 generally not conducted far from the source of where
they enter the power system
 Impulsive transients - excite the natural frequency of
power system circuits and produce oscillatory transients.

Typical current impulsive
transient caused by lightning

Oscillatory Transient
 An oscillatory transient is a sudden, non–power
frequency change in the steady-state condition of
voltage, current, or both, that includes both positive
and negative polarity values.
 Instantaneous value of oscillatory transient changes
polarity rapidly.

 It can be classified into 3 types,
1. High-frequency Transients: These have frequency
components greater than 500 kHz and a typical duration
measured in microseconds (or several cycles of the
principal frequency).
2. Medium-frequency Transients: These have frequency
components between 5 and 500kHz with duration
measured in the tens of microseconds (or several cycles
of the principal frequency).
3. Low-frequency Transients: These have frequency
components less than 5 kHz, and a duration from 0.3 to
50 ms.

High Frequency Oscillatory Transient
 Oscillatory transients - primary frequency component
greater than 500 kHz & typical duration measured in
microseconds (or several cycles of the principal
frequency) are considered high-frequency transients.
 These transients are often the result of a local system
response to an impulsive transient.

Medium Frequency Oscillatory Transient
 A transient with a primary frequency component
between 5 and 500 kHz
 duration measured in the tens of microseconds (or
several cycles of the principal frequency) is termed a
medium-frequency transient.
 Back-to-back capacitor energization results in oscillatory
transient currents in the tens of kilohertz.
 Cable switching results in oscillatory voltage transients
in the same frequency range.
 Medium-frequency transients can also be the result of a
system response to an impulsive transient.

Low-frequency
oscillatory transient
caused by capacitor
bank energization.
34.5-kV bus voltage
Low-frequency oscillatory
transient caused by ferro-
resonance of an unloaded
transformer

Low-frequency Transient
 A transient with a primary frequency component less
than 5 kHz,
 duration from 0.3 to 50 ms, is considered a low-
frequency transient.
 subtransmission and distribution systems and is caused
by many types of events.
 The most frequent is capacitor bank energization, which
typically results in an oscillatory voltage transient with a
primary frequency between 300 and 900 Hz.
 The peak magnitude can approach 2.0 pu, but is
typically 1.3 to 1.5 pu with a duration of between 0.5 and
3 cycles depending on the system damping.

Ferroresonance transient
 Oscillatory transients - principal frequencies less than
300 Hz
 found on the distribution system.
 generally associated with ferroresonance and
transformer energization.
 a transient in a three-phase system with a separate
neutral conductor can be either common mode or normal
mode.
 depending on whether it appears between line or neutral
and ground, or between line and neutral.

Transients
Unipolar Bipolar Oscillatory

Positive Notching
200
100
-100
-200
Negative Multiple Zero Crossings
A transient power quality event has occurred on DataNode H09_5530. The event
occurred at 10-16-2001 05:03:36 on phase A. Characteristics were Mag = 478.V
(1.22pu), Max Deviation (Peak-to-Peak) = 271.V (0.69pu), Dur = 0.006 s (0.35
cyc.), Frequency = 1,568. Hz, Category = 3 Upstream Capacitor Switching
Transients

Possible Causes Possible Effects
• PF cap energization • Data corruption
• Lightning • Equipment damage
• Loose connection • Data transmission errors
• Load or source switching • Intermittent equipment operation
• RF burst • Reduced equipment life

• Irreproducible problems

What is an RMS Variation?
(longer duration events)
A change in the RMS voltage. Typically 16 ms

(1 cycle) or longer
 Reduction in voltage: Sag or Interruption

 Increase in voltage: Swell

RMS Voltage Variations
Sag Swell Interruption
100
-100

Motor Starting
Timeplot Chart
Volts Amps
222.5 900
Min Max Median
CHA Vrms 206.11 222.25 219.19
CHA Irms 1.40 847.71 207.16
800
220.0
700
217.5
600
215.0
500
400
212.5
300
210.0
200
207.5
100
205.0 0
09:49:00.5 09:49:01.0 09:49:01.5 09:49:02.0 09:49:02.5 09:49:03.0 09:49:03.5 09:49:04.0
CHA Vrms CHA Irms
09/13/96 09:49:00.50 - 09/13/96 09:49:04.00

IEEE1159 Characterizations
(RMS Variations)
 Instantaneous (0.5 - 30 cycles)

• Sag (0.1 - 0.9 pu)
• Swell (1.1 - 1.8 pu)
 Momentary (30 cycles - 3 sec)
• Interruption (< 0.1 pu, 0.5 cycles - 3s)
• Sag
• Swell
 Temporary (3 sec - 1 minute)
 Long Duration (beyond 1 minute)

What is Directivity?
Where the problem originated referenced to the point being
monitored (where the instrument is)
 Typically referred to as “Upstream” or “Downstream”

 Upstream
• Source side. Originated from the source of supply (can be utility)
 Downstream
• Load side. Originated from a load
 Helps you identify where the problem is and what actions to
take.

Case Study – Major Financial Institution
(Benefits of Learning Directivity)
 Problem – Utility Sag

 Damaged elevator controls
 No UPS alarms (2 static, 1 rotary)
 No reported problems with critical systems
02/19/2002 PM Module Temporary Rms Voltage Mag = 366.V (0.76pu), Dur = 3.300 s, Category = 2,
00:29:29.26 Upstream Sag
Input Sag AB
02/19/2002 SYSA Input Temporary Rms Voltage Mag = 353.V (0.73pu), Dur = 3.300 s, Category = 2,
Sag AB
02/19/2002 SYSB Input Temporary Rms Voltage Mag = 372.V (0.78pu), Dur = 3.300 s, Category = 2,
Sag AB

Utility Sag
Utility Supply RMS Trend
Utility Supply Waveforms

Corresponding UPS Swell
Utility Supply
UPS Swell
UPS Output

Conclusion
 Utility sags damaged elevator controls

 Corresponding UPS Swell coincident with utility
return to normal
 Cause of swell being investigated by manufacturer
 Possible effects of swells”
• Damaged power supplies and other devices
Without monitoring, the customer would be

unaware of the UPS problem. The next time, the
damage could be worse

Long-Duration Voltage Variations
 When the rms value of voltage deviates for duration more than 1 minute,
it is termed as long duration voltage variation. Long-duration variations
encompass root-mean-square (rms) deviations at power frequencies for
longer than 1 min. ANSI C84.1 specifies the steady-state voltage
tolerances expected on a power system. A voltage variation is
considered to be long duration when the ANSI limits are exceeded for
greater than 1 min.
 Long-duration variations can be either overvoltages or undervoltages.
Overvoltages and undervoltages generally are not the result of system
faults, but are caused by load variations on the system and system
 switching operations. Such variations are typically displayed as plots of
rms voltage versus time.
Sources: Load variations, System switching operation.
 It may be categorized into following types.
 1. Over Voltage, 2. Under Voltage, 3. Sustained Interruptions

Over Voltages
 An overvoltage is an increase in the rms ac voltage greater
than 110 percent at the power frequency for duration longer
than 1 min.
 Overvoltages are usually the result of load switching
 (e.g., switching off a large load or energizing a capacitor
bank).
 The overvoltages result because either the system is too
weak for the desired voltage regulation or voltage controls
are inadequate.
 Incorrect tap settings on transformers can also result in
system overvoltages.

Over Voltages
Sources of OV:
 (a) Overvoltage is usually the result of load switching
 e.g., switching off a large load
or
 energizing a capacitor bank.

Under Voltages
 An under voltage is a decrease in the rms ac voltage to less
than 90 Percent at the power frequency for a duration longer
than 1 min.
 Undervoltages are the result of switching events that are the
opposite of the events that cause overvoltages.
 A load switching on or a capacitor bank switching off can
cause an undervoltage until voltage regulation equipment on
the system can bring the voltage back to within tolerances.
 Overloaded circuits can result in undervoltages also.

Under Voltages
 The term brownout is often used to describe sustained periods
of undervoltage initiated as a specific utility dispatch strategy to
reduce power demand.
 Because there is no formal definition for brownout and it is not
as clear as the term undervoltage when trying to characterize a
disturbance, the term brownout should be avoided.
 Sources: A load switching on or a capacitor bank switching off.

Sustained Interruptions
 When the supply voltage becomes zero for a period
of time in excess of 1 min,
 the long-duration voltage variation is considered a
sustained interruption.
 Voltage interruptions longer than 1 min are often
permanent and require human intervention to repair
the system for restoration.
 The term sustained interruption refers to specific
power system phenomena and, in general, has no
relation to the usage of the term outage.

Sustained Interruptions
 Utilities use outage or interruption to describe
phenomena of similar nature for reliability reporting
purposes.
 This could be as little as one-half of a cycle.
Outage, as defined in IEEE Standard 100,8 does
not refer to a specific phenomenon, but rather to
the state of a component in a system that has failed
to function as expected.
 Thus, this term has been defined to be more
specific regarding the absence of voltage for long
periods.

Short-Duration Voltage Variations
 When the rms value of voltage deviates for duration
less than 1 minute, it is termed as long duration
voltage variation.
 Each type of variation can be designated as
instantaneous, momentary, or temporary,
depending on its duration.
 Short-duration voltage variations are caused by
fault conditions, the energization of large loads
which require high starting currents, or intermittent
loose connections in power wiring.

Short-Duration Voltage Variations
 Depending on the fault location and the system
conditions, the fault can cause either
 temporary voltage drops (sags), voltage rises
(swells), or a complete loss of voltage
(interruptions).
 The fault condition can be close to or remote from
the point of interest.
 In either case, the impact on the voltage during the
actual fault condition is of the short-duration
variation until protective devices operate to clear the
fault.

 Types of Short Duration
interruption:
 Momentary Interruption < 1 min ,
<0.1 pu
 Temporary Interruption < 1 min ,
<0.1 pu
 It may be categorized into following
types.
Interruption: An interruption occurs when
the supply voltage or load current
decreases to less than 0.1 pu for a
period of time not exceeding 1 min.
 Sources: Interruptions can be the result
of power system faults, equipment
failures, and control malfunctions.

Interruptions
 Interruptions can be the result of power system faults,
equipment failures, and control malfunctions.
 The interruptions are measured by their duration since the
voltage magnitude is always less than 10 percent of
nominal.
 The duration of an interruption due to a fault on the utility
system is determined by the operating time of utility
protective devices.
 Instantaneous reclosing generally will limit the interruption
caused by a nonpermanent fault to less than 30 cycles.
 Delayed reclosing of the protective device may cause a
momentary or temporary interruption.

Interruptions
 The duration of an interruption due to equipment
malfunctions or loose connections can be irregular.
 Some interruptions may be preceded by a voltage sag when
these interruptions are due to faults on the source system.
 The voltage sag occurs between the time a fault initiates
and the protective device operates.
 Figure -a momentary interruption during which voltage on
one phase sags to about 20 percent for about 3 cycles and
then drops to zero for about 1.8 s until the re-closer closes
back in.

Sag
 A sag is a decrease in rms voltage or
current between 0.1 and 0.9 pu at the
power frequency for durations from 0.5
cycle to 1 min.
 Sources: Voltage sags are result of
system faults and also can be caused by
energization of heavy loads or starting of
large motors.

Sag
 A voltage sag or voltage dip is a short
duration reduction in RMS voltage which can
be caused by a short circuit, overload or
starting of electric motors.
 Voltage sag happens when the RMS voltage
decreases between 10 and 90 percent of
nominal voltage for one-half cycle to one
minute.
 Some references define the duration of sag for
a period of 0.5 cycles to a few seconds, and
longer duration of low voltage would be called
“sustained sag".
There are several factors which cause
voltage sag to happen:
 When a line-to-ground fault occurs, there
will be voltage sag until the protective
switch gear operates.
 Some accidents in power lines such as
lightning or falling an object can be a
cause of line-to-ground fault and voltage
sag as a result.
 Sudden load changes or excessive loads
can cause voltage sag.
 Voltage sags can arrive from the utility
but most are caused by in-building
equipment.
 In residential homes, we usually see
voltage sags when the refrigerator, air-
conditioner or furnace fan starts up.

Swells
 A swell is defined as an increase to between 1.1 and 1.8 pu
in rms voltage or current at the power frequency for
durations from 0.5 cycle to 1 min.
 Sources: Voltage swells occur from temporary voltage rise
on the unfaulted phases during an SLG fault. Swells can
also be caused by switching off a large load or energizing
large capacitor bank.
 Swell - an increase to between 1.1pu and 1.8 pu in rms
voltage or current at the power frequency durations from 0.5
to 1 minute

Instantaneous Voltage Swell Due to
SLG fault
•Voltage swells can also be caused by
the deenergization of a very large load.
•It may cause breakdown of
components on the power supplies of
the equipment, though the effect may
be a gradual, accumulative effect.
ovoltage swell due to a single line-to-

ground (SLG) fault -temporary voltage
rise on the un faulted phases, as figure

Voltage Imbalance
 Voltage imbalance (also called voltage unbalance)
is defined as the maximum deviation from the
average of the three-phase voltages or currents,
divided by the average of the three-phase voltages
or currents, expressed in percent.
 The ratio of either the negative- or zero-sequence
component to the positive-sequence component
can be used to specify the percent unbalance.

Voltage Imbalance
 The source of voltage unbalances is single-phase
loads on a three-phase circuit.
 Voltage unbalance can also be the result of blown
fuses in one phase of a three-phase capacitor
bank.
 Severe voltage unbalance (greater than 5 percent)
can result from single-phasing conditions.

Voltage Imbalance

Waveform Distortion
 Waveform distortion is defined as a steady-state
deviation from an ideal sine wave of power frequency.
 There are five primary types of waveform distortion:
1. DC offset
2. Harmonics
3. Interharmonics
4. Notching
5. Noise

DC offset:
 The presence of a dc voltage or current in an ac
power system is termed dc offset.
 Effects: (a) It may saturate the transformer core
causing additional heating and loss of transformer
life.
 (b) Direct current may also cause the electrolytic
erosion of grounding electrodes and other
connectors.

DC offset:
 Occur -result of a geomagnetic disturbance or
asymmetry of electronic power converters.
 Incandescent light bulb life extenders,
 for example, may consist of diodes that reduce the
rms voltage supplied to the light bulb by half-wave
rectification.
 Direct current in ac networks--detrimental effect by
biasing transformer cores -saturate in normal
operation.
 causes additional heating and loss of transformer
life.

Harmonics
 Harmonics are sinusoidal voltages or currents having
frequencies that are integer multiples of the supply
frequency (fundamental frequency). Periodically distorted
waveforms can be decomposed
 into a sum of the fundamental frequency and the
harmonics.
 Harmonic distortion originates in the nonlinear
characteristics of devices and loads on the power system.
 Harmonic distortion levels are described by the complete
harmonic spectrum with magnitudes and phase angles of
each individual harmonic component.

Harmonics
 It is also common to use a single quantity, the
total harmonic distortion (THD), as a measure of
the effective value of harmonic distortion.
 Figure below illustrates the waveform and
harmonic spectrum for a typical adjustable-speed-
drive (ASD) input current.
 Current distortion levels can be characterized by a
THD value

Current waveform and harmonic
spectrum for an ASD input
current

Interharmonics
 Voltages or currents having frequency components that are not
integer multiples of the frequency at which the supply system is
designed to operate (e.g., 50 or 60 Hz) are called inter-
harmonics.
 They can appear as discrete frequencies or as a wideband
spectrum.
 Interharmonic can be found in networks of all voltage classes.
 The main sources of interharmonic waveform distortion are static
frequency converters, cycloconverters, induction furnaces, and
arcing devices.
 Power line carrier signals can also be considered as
interharmonic.
 Since the first edition of this book, considerable work has been
done on this subject.

Interharmonics
 generally the result of frequency conversion and is often
not constant
 it varies with load.
 interharmonic currents -excite quite severe resonances on
the power system as the varying interharmonic frequency
becomes coincident with natural frequencies of the
system.
 They have been shown to affect power-line-carrier
signalling and induce visual flicker in fluorescent and other
arc lighting as well as in computer display devices.
 Sources: Static frequency converter, cycloconverters,
induction furnaces, and arcing devices. Power line carrier
signals can also be considered as interharmonic.

Notching
 Notching is a periodic voltage disturbance caused by the normal
operation of power electronic devices when current is commutated from
one phase to another.
 Figure shows an example of voltage notching from a three-phase
converter that produces continuous dc current.
 The notches occur when the current commutates from one phase to
another.
 During this period, there is a momentary short circuit between two
phases, pulling the voltage as close to zero as permitted by system
impedances.

Noise
 Noise -unwanted electrical signals with broadband spectral content
lower than 200 kHz
 superimposed upon the power system voltage or current in phase
conductors, or found on neutral conductors or signal lines.
 Noise in power systems -caused by
o power electronic devices,
o control circuits,
o arcing equipment,
o loads with solid-state rectifiers, and
o switching power supplies.
 Noise problems are often exacerbated by improper grounding that

fails to conduct noise away from the power system.

Voltage Fluctuation
 Voltage fluctuations are systematic variations of the voltage
envelope or a series of random voltage changes, the
magnitude of which does not normally exceed the voltage
ranges specified by ANSI C84.1 of 0.9 to 1.1 pu.
 IEC 61000-2-1 defines various types of voltage fluctuations.
 IEC 61000-2-1 Type (d) voltage fluctuations, which are
characterized as a series of random or continuous voltage
fluctuations.
 Loads that can exhibit continuous, rapid variations in the load
current magnitude can cause voltage variations that are often
referred to as flicker.

flicker
 The term flicker is derived from the impact of the voltage fluctuation
on lamps such that they are perceived by the human eye to flicker.
 To be technically correct, voltage fluctuation is an electromagnetic
phenomenon while flicker is an undesirable result of the voltage
fluctuation in some loads.
 However, the two terms are often linked together in standards.
 Therefore, we will also use the common term voltage flicker to
describe such voltage fluctuations.
 An example of a voltage waveform which produces flicker is shown
in Fig below.

flicker
 This is caused by an arc furnace, one of the most common causes of
voltage fluctuations on utility transmission and distribution systems.
 The flicker signal is defined by its rms magnitude expressed as a
percent of the fundamental.
 Voltage flicker is measured with respect to the sensitivity of the human
eye.
 Typically, magnitudes as low as 0.5 percent can result in perceptible
lamp flicker if the frequencies are in the range of 6 to 8 Hz.
 IEC 61000-4-15 defines the methodology and specifications of
instrumentation for measuring flicker.
 Loads that can exhibit continuous, rapid variations in the load current
magnitude can cause voltage variations that are often referred to as
flicker.

 This value is a longer-term average of Pst
samples.
 Figure below illustrates a trend of Pst
measurements taken at a 161-kV substation bus
serving an arc furnace load.
 Pst samples are normally reported at 10-min
intervals.
 A statistical evaluation process defined in the
measurement standard processes instantaneous
flicker measurements to produce the Pst value.
 The Plt value is produced every 2 h from the Pst
values.
 Voltage fluctuations are characterized as a
series of random or continuous voltage
fluctuations.

Voltage fluctuations
 are caused when loads draw currents having significant
sudden or periodic variations.
 The fluctuating current that is drawn from the supply causes
additional voltage drops in the power system leading to
fluctuations in the supply voltage.

Voltage fluctuations::
 Loads that exhibit continuous rapid variations are thus the
most likely cause of voltage fluctuations.
 Arc furnaces
 Arc welders
 Installations with frequent motor starts (air conditioner

units, fans)
 Motor drives with cyclic operation (mine hoists, rolling
mills)
 Equipment with excessive motor speed changes
(wood chippers, car shredders)

Power Frequency Variations
 Power frequency variations are defined as the deviation of
the power system fundamental frequency from it specified
nominal value (50 or 60 Hz).
Sources:
 Due to faults on the bulk power transmission system,
 a large block of load being disconnected,

 or a large source of generation going off-line.
 On modern interconnected power system, frequency variations are rare.

 Power frequency variations are a deviation from the nominal
supply frequency.
 The supply frequency is a function of the rotational speed of
the generators used to produce the electrical energy.
 At any instant, the frequency depends on the balance
between the load and the capacity of the available
generation.
 A frequency variation occurs if a generator becomes un-
synchronous with the power system, causing an
inconsistency that is manifested in the form of a variation.
 The specified frequency variation should be within the limits
Hz at all times for grid network.

 Figure illustrates frequency variations for a 24-h period on a typical 13-kV

substation bus.
 Frequency variations that go outside of accepted limits for normal steady-
state operation of the power system can be caused by faults on the bulk
power transmission system, a large block of load being disconnected, or
a large source of generation going off-line.
PQ Rule #1
For a source generated Sag, the current usually
decreases or goes to zero
August 14, 2003 Blackout:
Long Duration Interruption
EPQ DR.D.V.N.
Ananth
EEE
PQ Rule #2
For a load generated Sag, the current
usually increases significantly.
Waveforms
Vo lts A m ps
400 150 0
300
100 0
200
500
100
-50 0
-10 0
-10 00
-20 0
-15 00
-30 0
-40 0 -20 00
09:49:00 .90 09:49:00 .95 09:49:01.00 09:49:01.04 09:49:01.09
C H A Vo lts C H A A m ps
EPQ DR.D.V.N.
Ananth
Pre/Post-trigger at 09/13/1996
EEE 09:49:00.947
File: C:\DranView \K_DEMO pq+ w ith inrush data.dnv
RMS Voltage Variations
Causes and Effects
Possible Causes
• Sudden change in load current
 Possible Effects
• Process interruption
• Fault on feeder • Data loss
• Fault on parallel feeder • Data transmission errors
• Motor start • PLC or computer misoperation
• Undersized distribution system • Damaged product
• Motor failure

Common RMS Voltage Variations
Visualization methods using power monitoring
instrumentation
•Sampled data
•Recorded Waveforms
•Magnitude vs. Time
•Timelines
•Magnitude vs. Event Duration
•CBEMA (IEEE 446)
•ITIC
•3-D Mag-Dur
•Equipment susceptibility curves
•Custom curves that represent that specific device

IEEE 446 - 1995 Limits (CBEMA)

Information Technology Industry Council
(ITIC) Curve

Another Perspective – 3D Mag-Dur Histogram

Case Study
(Laser Printer Heating Cycle)

Voltage Timeline
Vl-n= 120 --> 108 45 seconds

SAG when heater turns on
V l-n
I load

Overlay Voltage & Current - Heater turning on

What is a harmonic?
An integer multiple of the fundamental
frequency
Fundamental (1st harmonic) = 60hz

2nd = 120hz
3rd = 180hz
4th = 240hz
5th = 300hz
…

Linear Voltage / Current
No Harmonic Content
voltage
current

Non-Linear Voltage / Current
Harmonic Content
voltage
current

When should I be concerned about Harmonics?
 Harmonics are typically considered a problem when they are

always present…Steady state distortion that is continuously
occurring.
 Although any waveform can have harmonics we are typically
concerned with the cumulative effects of continual harmonic
distortion on the power system
Waveforms
A m ps
200
15 0
10 0
50
-50
- 10 0
- 15 0
-20 0
14 :3 4 :4 2 .2 0 14 :3 4 :4 2 .2 1 14 :3 4 :4 2 .2 2 14 :3 4 :4 2 .2 3 14 :3 4 :4 2 .2 4 14 :3 4 :4 2 .2 5 14 :3 4 :4 2 .2 6 14 :3 4 :4 2 .2 7
CH A A m ps
Waveform event at 03/22/1999 14:34:42.480

File: C:\DranView \Q_DEMO C ycle by cycle harmonics.dnv

How are harmonics measured?
 Individual Harmonics
 2, 3, 4, 5, 6…50+
 Fourier Transform, FFT, DFT
 Total Harmonic Distortion (THD)
 Ratio, expressed as % of sum of all harmonics to:
 Fundamental (THD)
 Total RMS
 Load Current (I TDD only)
 Interharmonics
 Content between integer harmonics
 Required for new IEC standards (IEC 61000-4-30)

Harmonic Spectrum
Event waveform/detail
% o f FND
12.5
10.0
7.5
5.0
2.5
0.0
Thd H05 H10 H15 H20 H25 H30
CH A Vo lts
T otal RMS: 24882.56 Volts

DC Lev el : 880.46 Volts
Fundamental(H1) RMS: 24725.89 Volts
T otal Harmonic Distortion (H02-H50): 10.60 % of FND
Ev en contribution (H02-H50): 7.97 % of FND
Odd contribution (H03-H49): 6.99 % of FND

PQ Rule #3
Even harmonics typically do not appear in a properly
operating power system.
Symmetry
 Positive & Negative halves the same: Only odd harmonics.
 If they are different: Even & Odd harmonics

What are Triplen Harmonics?
 Harmonics who’s order is a multiple of 3

 3, 6, 9, …
Why should I be concerned about

Triplen Harmonics?
 Triplen Harmonics add in the neutral.

Additive Triplen Harmonics

Harmonics (sustained)
Possible Causes
 Possible Effects
• Rectified inputs of • Overload of neutral conductors
power supplies • Overload of power sources
• Non-symmetrical current
• Low power factor
• Intermittent electrical noise
• Reduced ride-through
from loose connections

Case Study
(Laser Printer Heating Cycle)
Continued…

Current Waveform - heater on

HARMONIC DISTORTION - heater on
Harmonics V l-n Vthd = 2.8%
Harmonics I load Ithd = 5%

Current With Printer Idle

Harmonic Distortion - Idle
Harmonics V l-n Vthd = 3.1%
Harmonics I load Ithd = 140%

Review of What We Just Saw
 Nearly Sinusoidal Current
 Low Voltage Harmonic Distortion (4%)
 Voltage and Current In-phase
 Power Factor Near One
 Flat-topping of Voltage when Idle
 Corresponds with Current Pulse

Other PQ Concerns
(defined in IEEE 1159)
Frequency
• Frequency different from the ideal 50/60hz
• Frequency not synchronized with the grid
Unbalance
• Deviation from the average 3 phase voltage (IEEE)
Voltage Fluctuations (Flicker)
• Small changes to the magnitude of the voltage
• Visual perception. Effects on lights

How Many Can You Find?

Monitoring
Approaches and
Tools
 Handheld/Portable
 (Reactive) Vs. Permanently

Installed (Proactive)

Reactive Monitoring
 After the fact - Reactive

 Forensic approach
 Problem Solving, Hopefully you’ll find it!
 Portable instrumentation typically used

Proactive Monitoring
 Permanently installed monitoring systems

 Anticipate the future, On-Line when trouble occurs
 Monitor system dynamics
 Preventive Maintenance, Trending, identify
equipment deterioration
 Power Quality and Flow


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“Any occurrence manifested in voltage,

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 system crashes and equipment failure

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Given the quality of supply do I have to worry

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Typically, 70% of all PQ events

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 Signal systems (power line carrier)

 Voltage fluctuations (flicker)

 Voltage dips and interruptions

 Voltage imbalance (unbalance)

 Power frequency variations

 Induced low-frequency voltages

(iii)Conducted high-frequency phenomena

(iv) Radiated high-frequency phenomena

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o would contain current quality

o How accurate the customer is in paying the electricity bill

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Unipolar Bipolar Oscillatory

• PF cap energization • Data corruption

• Lightning • Equipment damage

• Loose connection • Data transmission errors

• Load or source switching • Intermittent equipment operation

• RF burst • Reduced equipment life

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A change in the RMS voltage. Typically 16 ms

 Reduction in voltage: Sag or Interruption

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