Chapters 4, 8, and 9: Advanced Lightwave Systems: John Xiupu Zhang

Chapters 4, 8, and 9:
Advanced Lightwave Systems
John Xiupu Zhang

Channel Multiplexing Techniques
• Polarization division multiplexing
• Wavelength division multiplexing (WDM)
• Orthogonal frequency division multiplexing (OFDM)
• Time division multiplexing (TDM)

Polarization Division Multiplexing
WDM
WDM Concepts
Optical Fiber – transmission of many λ‘s
Which wavelengths?
850 nm, 1300 nm, zero 1550 nm, minimum
low cost dispersion attenuation
10
Attenuatio
5
n(dB/km)
1.0
0.5
0.1
0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8
Wavelength (µm)
Copyright VPIsystems. All rights reserved. 1
WDM Concepts
Coarse WDM
One channel each
10
Attenuation
5
(dB/km)
1.0
0.5
0.1
0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8

Wavelength (µm)
Simple, wide separation, independent

WDM Concepts
Dense WDM (DWDM)

Up to ~ 40 channels
between 1530 – 1560 nm
10
Attenuation
5
(dB/km)
1.0
0.5
0.1
0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8

Wavelength (µm)
Higher capacity, greater design challenges

DWDM System Components
• Transmitters
• Multiplexer
• Optical Fiber
• Optical Amplifiers
• Demultiplexer
• Receivers
Transmitters Receivers
Fiber
Amplifier
Multiplexer Demultiplexer
Optical Add-Drop Multiplexer (OADM)
Long-haul
Ultra long haul

DWDM System Capacity
• Optical Bandwidth
• Bit rate per Channel WDM
Data Capacity
• Channel Density o f T = B .C .D
r
B be ths
um ng
N le
e
av . D
Optical Bandwidth
W
B D
WDM Capacity n
=
s it y
Den Spectral
is related to n el Efficiency,
ha
n s = C .D
Component C
Performance Bit Rate per Channel C

DWDM Component
Performance
Laser
Multi-mode Laser Single-mode Laser Single-mode Laser
with Side Mode
Optical Optical Optical
Power Power Power
SMSR
> 40
dB
Optical Frequency Optical Frequency Optical Frequency
• Fluctuations in each mode

• Side Mode Suppression Ratio (SMSR)
• Side mode may interfere with other channels
DWDM Component
Performance
Directly or externally modulated Laser?
Optical Optical
Data Optical Frequency Power
Direct Input Output
Laser
Modulation
Time
Data
Input Optical Optical
External Bias CW Modulated Frequency Power
Input Output Output
Modulation Laser Modulator
Time
• Direct – simple, cheap but chirp and lower bit rates

• External – expensive, low chirp and higher bit rates
DWDM Component
Performance
Multiplexer
Individual
Inputs
Optical response of each input port
WDM 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Port Number
Output
Optical Frequency
• loss per channel, temperature sensitivity

• rejection of adjacent channels
• passband width of each channel
DWDM Component
Performance
Multiplexer, Laser noise and side mode
Individual Combined Power of Transmitters Combined Power of Transmitters
Inputs (Frequency independent Mux ) (Frequency selective Mux )
WDM Lasers’
Output Noise Lower
Adds Noise
Floor
Optical Optical
Side mode of first channel Frequency Side mode of first channel Frequency
pollutes second channel filtered by multiplexer
• Frequency independent or selective

• Laser noise higher or lower
• Laser side mode interference
DWDM Component
Performance
Demultiplexer
Optical response of each input port

WDM 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Port Number
Input
Output
Ports
Optical Frequency
• flat passband, sharp transition to stopband

• low passband, high stopband attenuation
• linear phase response
DWDM Component
Performance
Demultiplexer and channel density
Low density, D, and High density, D, and
Channel Bit Rate, C Channel Bit Rate, C
Optical Frequency Optical Frequency

Optical response of each Demux Port
Modulated Channel Power Spectrum
• High spectral efficiency:

• sharp filters
• good out-of-band rejection
DWDM Component
Performance
Optical Fibers
– Attenuation
– Group Velocity Dispersion (GVD)
– Self Phase Modulation (SPM)
– Cross Phase Modulation (XPM)
– Four Wave Mixing (FWM)
– Stimulated Raman Scattering (SRS)
– Stimulated Brillouin Scattering (SBS)
– Polarization Mode Dispersion (PMD)

DWDM Component
Performance
Optical Amplifiers Optical
Spectrum
Multiplexer
Amplifier
Optical Frequency
Optical Spectrum
Amplified Spontaneous
Emission Noise
Non-flat Gain vs. Frequency
Optical Frequency
• Gain Flatness , Low Noise , Wide Bandwidth

DWDM Component
Performance
Receivers
Receivers Electrical Power
Receiver
Demultiplexer Time
Optical Power
Receiver Noise
Time
Noise,, Receiver Sensitivity

• Receiver Noise
DWDM Component
Performance
Other components
– Add-Drop Multiplexers (ADM)
– Optical Cross Connects (OXC)
Performance Issues
– insertion Loss
– cross talk
– wavelength stability
– optical bandwidth per channel
– optical phase response per channel

Dispersion management
Dispersion compensation has to accommodate different needs
depending on system design.
Linear transmission systems:
• Zero residual dispersion at receiver
• Optimization of signal-to-noise ratio at receiver
Additionally in nonlinear transmission systems:

• Minimization of nonlinear effects
Optimization of the GVD profile along a transmission link

with respect to the impact of fiber nonlinearities is commonly
referred to as dispersion management.

8
Dispersion
7
eye - opening penalty [dB]

Pulse broadening in the 6
10 Gbit/s NRZ
over SMF
time-domain due to 5
D=16 ps/(km.nm)
dispersion leads to an 4
increased eye-closure. 3
2
Characterized by accumula- 1
ted dispersion Dacc [ps/nm]. 0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160
Dacc  D  L length of single-mode fiber [km]
Dacc=0 ps/nm Dacc=1120 ps/nm Dacc=2240 ps/nm

Dispersion length
Consider a Gaussian shaped pulse with  1 t2 
A(0, t )  A0 exp  
2 
 2 T0 
Dispersion length is
defined as: 1
T02 |A(0,t)|2
normalized amplitude
LD 
2
0.8
0.6
Pulse-shape at z=LD? |A(LD,t)|2
0.4
Broadening factor 1/e
at z=LD: t=T1
0.2
t=T0
T1
 2
T0 0
-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3
t / T0
Dispersion compensation
Dispersion is a linear effect. It can be compensated.
Commonly used: dispersion-compensating fiber (DCF)
SMF DCF
Positive dispersion parameter: Negative dispersion parameter:
ps ps
DSMF  17 DDCF  100
km  nm km  nm
LSMF LDCF Requirement for complete
compensation of 1st order
Dacc
GVD at a single wavelength:
LSMF DSMF  LDCF DDCF

L
Dispersion slope
Dispersion parameter D is a function of .
DSMF() Consider transmission of four
wavelength channels.
 Requirement for ideal 2nd
l1 l2 l3 l4
order GVD compensation
Different accumulated SSMF DSMF
dispersion.  (for all )
Residual SDCF DDCF
dispersion
after DCF.
Dacc
Dacc
L L
SMF DCF SMF DCF

Dispersion-compensation
Postcompensation: schemes
SMF DCF SMF DCF SMF DCF
Dres L
Precompensation:
DCF SMF DCF SMF DCF SMF
Dres
Hybrid-
compensation:
Dres
DCF SMF DCF SMF DCF SMF DCF

Dispersion management
Optimization of GVD profile through:
• choice of compensation scheme
• amount of residual dispersion per span
undercompensation
full compensation
Dacc
Dacc
L
L or
overcompensation
Dacc
Dacc at start of
each span: equal (zero)
L
Nonlinear
perturbations unequal
accumulate: coherently incoherently
Slight under- or overcompensation can reduce the accumulation of

nonlinear perturbations.
GVD and SPM impact
SPM GVD
L t 
  t 
D>0
Where is the DCF located?
Chirp fiber Bragg grating
Multi-channel FBG
SMF
10 FBG cascade
After TeraXion
Dispersion impact on FWM
FWM in amplified systems
a) Relative phases of signals and mixing products (FWM) in

each span determine whether mixing products grow or shrink
b) More amplified spans cause sharper efficiency peaks
FWM theory
j

i k F
If only considering FWM in Schrodinger equation:

  AF  d F Ai Aj Ak* exp jz 
dAF
dt 2
d F Degeneracy factor,
d F=1 for two-wave mixing
d F =2 for three-wave mixing
PF  AF   F Ld F  Pi Pj Pk exp L

2 2
1  exp L  j L
2
FWM efficiency F 
L  j L
If   0 sin 2  L / 2
F 
L / 22
 4e L sin 2 L / 2 
 0 F  2
2
1  
   2  1 e 
L 2


2 2   fi  f j  2 dD 
   F   k   i   j   
 f i  f k  f j  f k  D    f k 


c   2  c d 
2 2 2 2 dD 
 f  D  f  Equal channel spacing
c  c d 
Phase mis-match
FWM reduction
Summary
a) FWM products: noise, but not random process
b) Deterministic
c) Relative phase between mixing products and signals
determine whether interference is constructed or destructed
Inter-Channel Crosstalk
hetero-wavelength crosstalk, incoherent crosstalk

1 2
inter-channel crosstalk
Out-of-band crosstalk
Nonlinear Raman crosstalk (SRS crosstalk)
System considerations
Raman tilt
• Amplification of higher wavelength channels at the expense of
lower wavelength channels due to Raman scattering
• Time domain: Frequency domain:
amplification or attenuation tilted WDM spectrum
of single bits
1
Amplitude
2
1
2
t 1 2 … n 
References: T. Schneider, Nonlinear Optics in Telecommunications, Springer-Verlag Berlin, 2004
G.P. Agrawal, Nonlinear Fiber Optics, Academic Press, 2007
J. Bromage, Raman Amplification for Fiber Communications Systems, JLT, 2004
Digital Signal Processing Enabled
Coherent Optical Communications
Coherent
Tx
Optical receiver
2Es  t  ELO cos IF t  sig  t   LO  t  

Pros & Cons
Benefits:
• ASK • equalization of propagation
• FSK impairment in electrical domain
=electric field equalization
• PSK (DPSK) • better Rx sensitivity
• QPSK (DQPSK)
• 8PSK (D8PSK)
• 8QAM Difficulties:
• 16QAM • complex Rx
• 64 QAM • Impact of phase noise
(linear+nonlinear)
• Polarization management
Why?
• Ever growing network Target

traffic drives the need
for higher capacity in 8
7
the core network
SE (b/s/Hz)
6 Deployed
5
• Historically it has been 4
3
shown that increasing
2
bit rate per channel To be deployed
1
and spectral efficiency 0
(SE) is more cost 0 100 200 300 400
effective than lighting
Data rate per channel (Gb/s)
more fiber pairs
73
Multi-dimension and multi-level coding
Optical field of an optical carrier
 Ix   ax 
  j x
 
 I x  jQx   Qx   axe  x 
E     E 
I  jQ 
 Iy 
 a e j y   a y 
 y y  y   
Q   
 y  y
Information can be encoded/modulated on each one of the four dimensions
Increase mod. 1) Higher spectral efficiency (SE)

dimension and mod.
level at each dimension 2) Lower electrical processing
74
speed
DSP-enabled Tx
DSP
D/A converter
MZM1
Arbitrary I-Q
/2
MZM2 modulation
D/A converter
DSP
Additional advantages:
1) Raised-cosine pulse shaping for better SE
2) Digital pre-equalization for better signal quality
3) 75Software reconfigurable modulation formats
DSP-enabled Rx
DSP
X0
IX
O/E A/D hx hxx x Carrier
EX j Decision
Qx hxy recovery
Signal Pol. & X90
O/E A/D
phase Clock
EL diverse Y90 Recovery
hybrid O/E A/D hyx y
Qy Carrier
LO
Y0
j recovery
Decision
O/E A/D
Iy
hy hyy
EQ1 EQ2
Fast Phase tracking

Chromatic
dispersion Fast polarization tracking
compensation & PMD compensation
DSP algorithms not only allow the realization of coherent detection, they
also enable effective mitigation of several major optical impairments!
76
Digital Optical Rx
• DSP for
a) Polarization management
b) Phase estimation
c) equalization of transmission impairments
+ inadequacies of transmitter/receiver hardware:

compensated in DSP
+ detects phase- & polarization-encoded formats
+ allows many bits/symbol
+ best possible receiver sensitivity
+ ultra-narrow WDM
etc.
Light modulation devices (I)
• Phase modulator (PM)
– Changes the material refractive index, and consequently the phase
of the output light signal as a response to a voltage signal
– Light intensity is independent of the voltage signal
• Electro-absorption (EA) Intensity modulator

– Changes the material absorption coefficient, and consequently the
intensity of the output light as a response to a voltage signal

Light modulation devices (II)
• Mach-Zehnder Modulator (MZM)
– Performs the sum of the input signal with a phase-modulated copy
of itself
– Phase and intensity are modulated as response to a voltage signal
dual-drive MZM
Single-drive MZM

Amplitude shift Keying and
On-Off Keying
• Photo-detectors only detect the intensity of light and not the phase
or other parameters.
• In ASK modulation, the information can be extracted by direct
detection.
• ASK is typically used with a binary alphabet; binary ASK is also known
as On-Off Keying (OOK).
Signal constellation diagram Example of OOK signals

OOK generation: NRZ-OOK
• A continuous-wave (CW) laser and an intensity modulator are
needed to generate an NRZ-OOK signal (the electrical data is
normally in NRZ format).

OOK generation: RZ-OOK
• Two intensity modulators and a CW laser are needed to generate an
RZ-OOK signal. An alternative is to use a pulsed laser followed by an
intensity modulator.
• Note that data and pulse-carving sine signal must be properly aligned

Phase Shift Keying (PSK)
• In Phase Shift Keying modulation, the information is carried in the
phase of the signal
• PSK with 2 levels (BPSK), 4 levels (QPSK), 8 levels (8PSK) are the most
studied cases.
BPSK QPSK

NRZ-PSK and RZ-PSK
• In PSK, as in the case of ASK, light can be constant over a bit slot
(NRZ), or pulsed (RZ)

PSK implementation with
Phase Modulator
• PSK can be generated by means of a Phase Modulator (PM)
• For RZ-PSK, an additional intensity modulator (IM) is required following
the PM.
NRZ-BPSK
RZ-BPSK
• The electrical data signal is written directly on the phase of the optical
signal: The signal is faithfully reproduced including imperfections due to
limited bandwidth or extinction ratio

PSK and Differential PSK
(DPSK)
• Because photo-detectors cannot detect the phase of the signal, the
received signal needs to be compared with a reference phase before
being detected. The reference phase can be given by
a Local Oscillator: the received signal itself:

Coherent Detection Differential Detection
Detected amplitude is Detected amplitude is

proportional to the phase proportional to the phase
difference between current difference between
symbol and LO successive symbols
DPSK implementation with
Mach-Zehnder Modulator
• (D)PSK can be generated by
means of a Mach-Zehnder
Modulator (MZM)
• This ensures clean phase

transitions even for drive
signals with limited
bandwidth and extinction
ratio

DPSK: Balanced detector
• In a Mach-Zehnder Interferometer (MZI) with a one-bit delay on one
arm. If the phase is properly stabilised
– Phase shift between consecutive bits  full power on the
constructive port, no power on the destructive port  electric +1
– No phase shift between consecutive bits  no power on the
constructive port  full power on the destructive port electric -1

PSK vs. ASK: noise tolerance
at the receiver
• In PSK the distance between signals is larger than in OOK for a given
average power P.
• Consequently PSK can tolerate worse noise levels at the receiver 
better receiver sensitivity).
3 dB
PSK vs. ASK: power tolerance
• In PSK the peak power is 3 dB lower than in OOK for a given average
power P.
• Consequently PSK should tolerate higher power levels (non-linear
tolerance)
3 dB
Differential Quadrature Phase
Shift Keying (DQPSK)
• Multilevel PSK has been demonstrated and studied recently
• Four levels (Quadradure Phase Shift Keying, QPSK) optimal signal

constellation (efficient use of signal space)

DQPSK transmitter
• DQPSK can be generated by two dual-drive MZM, each giving the in-
phase or quadrature component of the DQPSK signal.
For DQPSK
• Because two bits per symbol are transmitted, the symbol rate is half
the bit rate

DQPSK receiver
• DQPSK detection is performed by means of two balanced detectors,
each giving the in-phase or in-quadrature component of the DQPSK
signal.
phase (I)
quadrature (Q)

DQPSK vs. DPSK and OOK
• In DQPSK the symbol rate is half the bit rate, consequently, with
respect to DPSK and OOK:
The distance between data The pulses are double as wide,

pulses is double i.e. the spectrum is narrower
Increased tolerance to Increased tolerance to tight

polarisation mode filtering (better spectral
dispersion (PMD) efficiency attainable)
Increased tolerance to chromatic

dispersion

Transmission of 100 Gb/s per channel (example)
Transmission of 100Gb/s on a single wavelength:
• Binary modulation formats (NRZ, Duobinary, NRZ/VSB)

+ Simple transmitter and receiver structures
- Increased requirements on electrical and electro-optical
components (electrical signals with ~100GHz)
– Sensitivity against CD & PMD (broad spectrum)
• Multilevel modulation formats (Pol-Mux-(RZ)-DQPSK,

16QAM, 8PSK)
+ Narrower Spectrum (increased robustness against PMD &CD,
higher spectral efficiency)
+ Generic transmitter scheme (IQ modulator)
- Receiver complexity for direct detection (DD) scheme
Constellations
mPSK-based constellations
Im Im convenient Tx Structure:
I-Q, DD MZM, Serial PM (+AM)
& convenient Rx Structure:

Re Re 90° Hybrid + 2 Balanced
Detectors (4 for pol. Diversity
Rx)
Phase modulated Star QAM (PSK + AM)

mQAM constellations (m=2N)
convenient Tx Structure:
Im Im I-Q, DD MZM, Serial PM+AM
convenient Rx Structure:
& 90° Hybrid + 2 Balanced
Re Re Detectors (4 for pol. Diversity Rx)
QAM constellation cross-constellation

(even N) (odd N)
QPSK Tx Architecture
DATA1 (-V, V )
Q
MZM1
I
/2
MZM2
DATA2
DATA2 (-V, V ) DATA1 (-
(0,V/2)
V,V)
Q
I
MZM PM
8PSK Tx Architecture
DATA1 (-V, V ) DATA3 Q

(0,V/4)
MZM1
I
/2
MZM2 PM
DATA2 (-V, V )
8QAM Tx Architecture
DATA1(-V, V )
DATA3 (0, V/2 )
MZM1
A B
/4 PM
(a) MZM2
DATA2 (-0.7V, 0.7V)
0.8 0.8
0.6 (b) 0.6

(c)
/4
E=0.52
0.4 0.4
0.2 0.2
0 0
-0.2 -0.2
-0.4 -0.4
-0.6 -0.6
-0.8
-0.8 -0.6 -0.4 -0.2 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 -0.8
-0.8 -0.6 -0.4 -0.2 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8
16QAM Tx Architecture
DATA1 (-0.4V, 0.4V) DATA4 (- DATA3
V,V) (0,V/2)
MZM1
/2
(a) MZM2 MZM3 PM
DATA1 (-0.4V, 0.4V)

Q Q Q
I I I
(b) (c) (d)

Coherent detection (Rx)
Clock recovery CMA/LMS
IX
X0 hx hxx x Carrier
EX PD1 A/D j recovery Decoding
decision
X90 Qx hxy
Signal
Pol. & PD2 A/D
phase hyx y Carrier
Iy Decoding
EL diverse Y0 recovery
hybrid j hy hyy decision
PD3 A/D
LO
Y90
Qy
CD comp. Pol. recovery
PD4 A/D
y Freq. recovery y1 Phase recovery
yM
 j t
y1M
 j
 e
 e
OFDM
Multicarrier modulation signal:
1. Any two subcarriers orthogonal
2. Any two bands orthogonal
Optical detection
1. ICI
2. SNR
0 km
1000 km
Cyclic prefix
Tx
Cyclic prefix:
DFT window:
waveform same
td   G
-ISI
Rx -ICI
Only phase shift added
Tx
Rx
Time domain OFDM signal
WDM-OFDM
One wavelength for

Multi-OFDM
XC-OFDM
Optical OFDM
• Coherent detection
• Direct detection
Coherent Optical
OFDM
OTDM
OTDM Multiplexing
OTDM deMultiplexing
Computer aided design

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Chapters 4, 8, and 9:

Advanced Lightwave Systems

John Xiupu Zhang

• Polarization division multiplexing

• Wavelength division multiplexing (WDM)

• Orthogonal frequency division multiplexing (OFDM)

• Time division multiplexing (TDM)

0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8

Simple, wide separation, independent

Dense WDM (DWDM)

0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8

Higher capacity, greater design challenges

Ultra long haul

Performance Bit Rate per Channel C

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Optical Frequency Optical Frequency Optical Frequency

• Fluctuations in each mode

• Direct – simple, cheap but chirp and lower bit rates

• loss per channel, temperature sensitivity

• Frequency independent or selective

Optical response of each input port

• flat passband, sharp transition to stopband

Optical Frequency Optical Frequency

• High spectral efficiency:

Copyright VPIsystems. All rights reserved. 1

• Gain Flatness , Low Noise , Wide Bandwidth

Noise,, Receiver Sensitivity

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Additionally in nonlinear transmission systems:

Optimization of the GVD profile along a transmission link

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eye - opening penalty [dB]

Dacc=0 ps/nm Dacc=1120 ps/nm Dacc=2240 ps/nm

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GVD at a single wavelength:

LSMF DSMF  LDCF DDCF

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DCF SMF DCF SMF DCF SMF DCF

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Slight under- or overcompensation can reduce the accumulation of

a) Relative phases of signals and mixing products (FWM) in

If only considering FWM in Schrodinger equation:

PF  AF   F Ld F  Pi Pj Pk exp L

hetero-wavelength crosstalk, incoherent crosstalk

2Es  t  ELO cos IF t  sig  t   LO  t  

• Ever growing network Target

Increase mod. 1) Higher spectral efficiency (SE)

Fast Phase tracking

+ inadequacies of transmitter/receiver hardware:

• Electro-absorption (EA) Intensity modulator

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a Local Oscillator: the received signal itself:

Detected amplitude is Detected amplitude is

• This ensures clean phase

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