Formulation of research

problems vis-à-vis
statistical treatment of
numerical data
Sevilla’s Farm and Resort
Lucena City
July 3 – 5, 2014
Specific Objectives:
1.Discuss the characteristics of a good
research problem;
2.Formulate a research title;
3.Identify the variables contained in the
research title;
4. Write the specific problems/objectives of
the formulated research title;
5.Review the fundamental statistical
concepts and tools;
6.Choose the most appropriate statistical
tools to use to completely answer the
specific problems/objectives.
A -Analyze the existing n
C -condition of the school as an organization

T -through offering

I -innovative programs and services in

O -order to create a
N -nurturing and life – giving community through

Research.
 Statement of the Problem
The problem to be investigated is one which
arises from a crisis or from unresolved
difficulties. Bear in mind that:
•The statement of the problem usually starts with a general
objective followed by specific or sub-problems stated in
question form.

•The problem should be stated precisely, accurately and

clearly.
•It be defined in terms of the data that can be obtained.
Other things to consider when formulating and stating
the problems and sub-problems:
•A Thesaurus helps the researcher find the exact word.
•Avoid the use of polysyllabic words if shorter words will
do.
•Use simple and short sentences with phrases and
clauses in proper order.
•Specific questions must be logically arranged and should
start with “what”, “how”, “To what extent”, etc.
•The heading “Statement of the Problem” must be
introduced by a paragraph containing the main objective
of the study.
Statistical Treatment of Data
This portion of the research paper includes the
statistical tools to be employed in analyzing the data. The
formula is included.
•Provide an introductory statement enumerating the statistical
formulas to be used.
•Indicate the statistical formulas for every specific problem.
•The presentation of the statistical formulas must follow the
order of the specific problems in the “Statement of the
Problem”.
•Null hypothesis should be rejected/ accepted at 0.05 percent
level of significance.
•Statistical computations may be manual or computer-
processed with the assistance of a statistician. Analysis and
interpretation of computed data should be done by the
researcher.
•Weighted average may be 3-point or 4-point scaled.
•Data analysis may be quantitative and/
or qualitative.
•Quantitative analysis uses statistics and a
description of the statistical methods of testing
the null hypothesis. This procedure is done in
quantitative designs such as descriptive and
experimental designs.
•However, qualitative and quantitative
methods may be combined. Richie and Lewis
(2003: 39) show how the said methods can be
combined.
Presentation, Analysis and Interpretation of Data
•This section should begin with an introduction stating
the score of the action research.
•The subdivisions and order of presentation of this
section depend upon the number of specific questions
stipulated in the Statement of the Problem.
•This section presents the summary of the data
gathered and the results of the statistical analysis
presented in tabular, textual or in graphical form.
 Things to remember in:
Presenting Data
•All collected data should be presented in tabular form; however,
unnecessary tabulated data may be placed in the Appendix for
reference. Quantitative researches should indicate in the tables
results of the statistics, degree of freedom and the level of
significance.
• Data of less than three categories must not be tabulated.
Analyzing Data
•When analyzing tabulated data, be sure to report in the text only relevant
data. Individual averages, scores, ranks, and percentage should not be
reported. Highlights in table as in the individual who ranked first or last or the
group’s weighted mean or mean performance should be given attention in
the analysis.
•Data should be analyzed objectively and logically by emphasizing facts
and not personal opinions.
•The researcher should carefully note all relevant results especially
those that run counter to the hypothesis.
Interpreting Data
•The analysis should be strengthened by interviews or observation
conducted by the researcher to the respondents and by citing statements
from authors/ authorities and the finding, similar or somewhat
contradicting in the studies reviewed. Sources must be acknowledged
following the (Author, year) format.

•Interpretations of findings must include implications and factors which

may have affected the outcomes of the research. All conditions which may
have limited the generalizations of the findings due to the weaknesses of
the research design, instruments/ techniques or population should be
discussed thoroughly.

Summary of Findings, Conclusions and Recommendations

The last part of the action research paper contains an overview of the
research study. It gives a brief restatement of the problem, procedure, findings as
well as the recommendations after drawing out the conclusions.
A BRIEF REVIEW
OF STATISTICS
Definition of Statistics
Statistics is the art and science of collecting, presenting,
analyzing, and interpreting data.

Statistical Processes
1. Collection refers to the gathering of information or
data.
2. Organization or presentation involves summarizing
data or information in textual, graphical, or tabular
forms.
3. Analysis involves describing the data by using
statistical methods and procedures.
4. Interpretation refers to the process of making
conclusions based on the analyzed data.
Branches of Statistics
Descriptive Statistics is a statistical procedure
concerned with describing the characteristics and
properties of a group of persons, places or things.
(Examples: People > poor, rich, literate, illiterate, age,
height, civil status, IQ, etc; Places > size, population,
no. of families, professional, etc., rate of employment)
Inferential Statistics is a statistical procedure that is
used to draw inferences or information about the
properties or characteristics by a large group of
people, places, or things on the basis of the
information obtained from a small portion of a large
group.
Definition of Some Basic Statistical Terms in
Statistics
1. Population refers to a large collection of objects,
persons, places, or things.
Population is the set of all individuals or entities
under consideration or study. It may be a finite or
infinite collection of objects, events, or individuals,
with specified class or characteristics under
consideration.
2. Sample is a small portion or part of a population. It
could also be defined as a subgroup, subset, or
representative of a population.
Sample is a part of the population or a sub-collection
of elements drawn from a population.
Parameter is any numerical or nominal characteristic of
a population. It is a value of measurement obtained
from a population. It is usually referred to as the true
or actual value.

Parameter is a numerical measurement describing

some characteristic of a population.

4. Statistic is an estimate of a parameter. It is any value

or measurement obtained from a sample. If the
researcher makes use of the sample, then the average
income obtained is called a statistic.

Statistic is a numerical measurement describing some

characteristic of a sample.
5. Data (singular form is datum) are facts, or a set of
information or observations under study.

Categories of Data
a.Qualitative Data are data which can assume values that
manifest the concept of attributes. These are sometimes
called categorical data. Data falling in this category cannot be
subjected to meaningful arithmetic operations. They cannot
be added, subtracted, or divided. Gender and nationality are
qualitative data.

b. Quantitative Data are data which are numerical in nature.

These are data obtained from counting or measuring. In
addition, meaningful arithmetic operations can be done with
this type of data. Test scores and height are examples of
quantitative data.
6. Variable is a characteristic or property of a
population or sample which makes the
members different from each other. If a class
consists of boys and girls, then gender is a
variable in this class. Height is also a variable
since different people have different heights.

Variable is a characteristic of interest

measurable on each and every individual in
the universe, denoted by any capital letter in
the English alphabet.
Types of Variable
Qualitative Variable consists of categories or attributes, which
have non-numerical characteristics.
Quantitative Variable consists of numbers representing counts
or measurements.

Classification of Quantitative Variable

Discrete Quantitative Variable results from either a finite
number of possible values or a countable number of possible
values.

Discrete Variable is one that can assume a finite number of

values. In other words, it can assume specific values only. The
values of a discrete variable are obtained through the process
of counting.
Continuous Quantitative Variable results from
infinitely many possible values that can be associated
with points on a continuous scale in such a way that
there are no gaps or interruptions.

Continuous variable is one that can assume infinite

values within a specified interval. The values of a
continuous variable are obtained through measuring.

Dependent Variable is a variable which is affected or

influenced by another variable.

Independent variable is one which affects or

influences the dependent variable.
7. Constant is a property or characteristics of a
population or sample, which makes the
members of the group similar to each other.
For example, if a class is composed of all boys,
then the gender is constant.

8. Survey is often conducted to gather opinions

or feedbacks about a variety of topics.

Census Survey, most often simply referred to as

census, is conducted by gathering information
from the entire population.
Four Levels of Measurement
The level of measurement of data determines the algebraic
operations that can be performed and the statistical tools that
can be applied to the data set.
Level 1
Nominal is characterized by data that consist of names, labels,
or categories only. The data cannot be arranged in an ordering
scheme.

Nominal Scale is the most primitive level of measurement. The

nominal level of measurement is used when we want to
distinguish one object from another for identification purposes.
In this level, we can only say that one object is different from
another but the amount of difference between them cannot be
determined. We cannot tell that, one is better or worse than
the other. Gender, nationality, and civil status are nominal
scale.
Level 2
Ordinal involves data that may be arranged in
some order, but differences between data values
either cannot be determined or are meaningless.
Ordinal Scale. In the ordinal level of
measurement, data are arranged in some
specified order or rank. When objects are
measured, in this level, we can say that one is
better than the other, but we cannot tell how
much more or how much less of the
characteristics one object has than the other.
The ranking of siblings in the family, or of honor
students are of ordinal scale.
Level 3
Interval is like the ordinal level, with the
additional property that meaningful amounts of
differences between data can be determined.
However, there is no inherent (natural) zero
starting point.
Interval Scale. If data are measured in the
interval level, we can say not only that one
object is greater or less than another but we can
also specify the amount of difference. The
scores in an exam are of the interval scale of
measurement.
Level 4
Ratio is the interval level modified to include the
inherent zero starting point. For values at this level,
differences and ratios are meaningful.

Ratio Scale. The ratio level of measurement is like the

interval level. The only difference is that the ratio level
always starts from an absolute or true zero point. In
addition in the ratio level, there is always the presence
of units of measure. If data are measured in this level,
we can say that one object is so many times as large or
as small as the other. For example, suppose Dugong
weighs 150 kg, while Pearly Shell weighs 50 kg. We can
say that Dugong is thrice as heavy as Pearly Shell. Thus,
the weight is an example of data measured in the ratio
scale.
Methods of Data Collection

1. Direct or Interview Method – The direct or interview method

of data collection use at least two persons (an interviewer and
interviewee/s) exchanging information. This method will give us
precise and consistent information because clarifications can be
made. Also, questions not fully understood by the respondent,
the interviewer could repeat the question until it suits the
interviewee’s level. However, this method is time consuming,
expensive and has limited field coverage.
2. Indirect or Questionnaire Method – This is a method where
written answers are given to prepared questions. This method
requires less time and is inexpensive since the questionnaires
can simply be mailed or hand-carried. Also, this will give an
respondent a sense of freedom in honestly answering the
questions because of anonymity.
3. Registration Method – This is a
method enforced by certain laws.
4. Observation Method – this is a
method, which observes the behaviour of
individuals or organizations in the study.
This is also used when the respondents
cannot read nor write.
5. Experiment Method – This method is
used when the objective of the study is
to determine the cause and effect of
certain phenomena or event.
Four Important Points To Consider When Collecting
Data
If measurements of some characteristic from people
(such as height) are being obtained, better results will be
achieved if the researcher does the measuring instead of
asking the respondent for the value.
The method of data collection used may expedite or
delay the process. Avoid a medium that would produce
low response rates.
Ensure that the sample size is large enough for the
required purposes.
Ensure that the method used to collect data actually
results in a sample that is representative of the
population.
Determining the Sample Size
Use the Slovin’s formula. Make a decision
as regards the margin of error to use in
determining the sample size.
Note: Observe that there is a margin of
error. When we use a sample, we do not
get the actual value but just an estimate of
the parameter. Hence, there is an error
associated when using the sample.
Methods of Data Presentation
1. Textual Method – a narrative
description of the data gathered.
2. Tabular Method – a systematic
arrangement of information into columns
and rows.
3. Graphical Method – an illustrative
description of the data.
Types of Descriptive Research
Descriptive-survey. This approach is
appropriate whenever the objects of any class
vary among themselves and one is interested
in knowing the extent to which different
conditions obtain among these objects. The
word survey signifies the gathering of data
regarding present conditions. The survey has
to do two things: (1) to prove the value of
facts, and (2) to focus attention on the most
important things to be reported.
Descriptive-normative survey. The term
normative is sometimes used because surveys
are frequently made to ascertain the normal or
typical condition (or practice), or to compare
local test results with a state or National norm.
Descriptive-status. This approach to problem-
solving seeks to answer questions to the real
facts relating to existing conditions. This is a
technique of quantitative description which
determine the prevailing conditions in a group
of cases chosen for study.
Descriptive-analysis. This is a method of determining and
describing the nature of a thing by separating it into its
parts. It has its purpose to discover the nature of things. It
has its purpose to discover the nature of things. What are
the substructures of the special organizations that occur
here and there as units within the larger structure? How
are all these individual parts and unit assemblies or organs
integrated into an internal system? What are the forces
that hold them together, and the strains that tend to tear
the system apart? What makes the system work? How is it
regulated? And, from the point of view of continuing
research, what new questions are brought to light by
analytical work which will serve as guide for future
research?
Descriptive-classification. This method is employed in
natural sciences subjects such as Botany, Zoology,
Ichthyology, Phychology, conchology and the like. The
specimens collected are classified from Phylum to
species.
Descriptive-evaluative. This method is designed to
appraise carefully the worthiness of the current study.
For instance, the researcher conducts a study on the
evaluation of an implementation of the work-oriented
curriculum at the fishery schools in the province of
Iloilo. He devises a questionnaire which evaluates the
implementation of the work-oriented curriculum and
requests the supervisory officials, fishery teachers, and
students as subjects of the study to respond on it.
Descriptive-comparative. It is a comparative
survey where the researcher considers at least
two entities (not manipulated) and establishes
a formal procedure for obtaining criterion data
on the basis of which he can compare and
conclude which of the two is better.
Correlational survey. This is designed to
determine the relationship of two variables (x
and Y) whether their relationship is perfect,
very high, high, marked, slight, or negligible.
Longitudinal survey. This involves much time allotted
for investigation of the same subjects at two or more
points in time.

For example, an investigator wants to set up patterns

of weight increase to pre-teenage children ages 1 to
9. He takes a group of one-year old boys and girls and
records their weights over a regular time intervals, i.e.
quarterly. The investigator follows up this work to
them till they reach 9 years old. Based on the data
gathered, the researcher sets up the weight pattern
from the same group of children investigated over a
long period of time.
Experimental Method
Experimental method is a problem-solving
approach that the study is described in the future on
what will be when certain variables are carefully
controlled or manipulated.
Even if experiment is conducted in the field,
laboratory or classroom but it is expected to reveal
cause and effect relationships. The problem is to
know the conditions under which an event occurs
and to observe the whole transaction closely so that
one can be reasonably sure causation is present.
Types of Experimental Design
The following are types of experimental design which
are applicable in natural sciences and education.

Illustration

An example of single-group design is when an investigator

wants to determine the effectiveness of teaching Mathematics
using three different methods. The same group of subject is
exposed to three different methods of teaching Mathematics.
Analysis of variance (ANOVA) is used to determine the
significant difference on the achievement of the subjects. Table
1 shows a sample test result of teaching Mathematics in three
methods using the single-group design.
Parallel-group design. This is a design in which two or
more groups are used at the same time with only one
single variable (control group) is manipulated or
changed. The experimental group is varied while the
parallel group serves as the control for comparative
purposes.
Counter-balanced design. This design falls on the
quasi-experimental design. This is also called as
“rotation design.” It involves an exchange of two or
more treatments taken by the subjects during the
experiment. The arrangement employed in this
design is Latin square in which each variable in a form
of square occurs once in each row or column.
Pretest-Posttest Group Design. This
design involves the experimental group
and the control group which are carefully
selected through randomization
procedures. Both groups are given pre-
test at the beginning of the semester and
posttest at the end of the semester. But
the control group is isolated from all
experimental influences.
Complete randomized design. This is a
design in which a group of test plants or
animals is studied only once but
subsequent treatment is applied to
determine the cause of change. There
is no control in this design but the
subjects will undergo randomization
procedures.
The following are types of hypothesis:
•The null hypothesis means no existence of an effect,
an interaction, of relationships, or of differences.
•The alternative hypothesis is considered the
operational statement of the research hypothesis.
When the alternative hypothesis is based on theory,
it is called deductive hypothesis. On the other hand,
when the alternative hypothesis is based on
observation, it is called inductive hypothesis.
•The non-directional hypothesis does not state any
direction. It is two-tailed.
•The directional hypothesis shows a direction of the
effect or of difference. It requires a one-tailed test.
Research Title: The Relationship of
Smoking Habits to Hypertension Among
the Employees of ABC Corporation
Ho: There is no relationship between
smoking habits and hypertension among
the employees of ABC Corporation.
Ha: There is a relationship between
smoking habits and hypertension among
the employees of ABC Corporation.
Steps in Testing Hypothesis:
1.Formulate the null hypothesis (Ho).
2.Select an appropriate alternative hypothesis (Ha).
3.Determine the level of significance to be used.
4.Choose an appropriate test statistic and
determine the critical value of the test statistic.
5.Find the value of the test statistic using the
sample data.
6.Make the decision. Reject Ho if the absolute
computed value of the test statistic is greater than
the absolute critical value, otherwise accept Ho.
THANK YOU VERY MUCH!
GOD BLESS US ALL!