Development of

Evolutionary Thought
General Bio II
Introduction to the Subject of Evolution

• Evolution is the most fundamental of all

biological processes, but one of the most
misunderstood.

• Humans evolved from a species that lived

some 6-8 million years ago, not monkeys or
chimpanzees.
Introduction to the Subject of Evolution

•Question:
How did we not evolve from
monkeys or chimpanzees?
 Introduction to the Subject of Evolution

• Answer:
• Humans are just more closely related to modern apes than
to monkeys, but we didn’t evolve from apes, either.
Humans share a common ancestor with modern African
apes. Scientists believe this common ancestor existed 5 to
8 million years ago. Shortly thereafter, the species
diverged into two separate lineages. One of these lineages
ultimately evolved into gorillas and chimps, and the other
evolved into early human ancestors called HOMINIDS.
 What is
EVOLUTION?
What is EVOLUTION?

• Evolution is the process of change through time.

• A scientific theory used by biologists. It explains
how living things change over a long time, and how
they have come to be the way they are.
• It is the process by which modern organisms have
descended from ancient organisms.
• It is a gradual change in a species over time.
Evolution Is a Theory

• The theory has been tested and subjected to

verification through accumulated evidence (and has
not been disproved)
• The theory of evolution has been supported by a
mounting body of genetic evidence.
• The theory has stood the test of time.
• The theory continues to grow.
 Early scientists who contributed or presented
ideas about how evolution occurs:

A. Carolus Linnaeus
• Carolus Linnaeus (mid-1700’) was a Swedish
biologist who established a simple system
for classifying and naming organisms.
• He developed a Hierarchy (a ranking
system) for classifying organisms that is the
Basis for Modern Taxonomy.
• For this reason, he is considered to be
“father” of modern taxonomy.
 A. Carolus Linnaeus

• He first divided all organisms into

two Kingdoms:
• a. Plantae (Plants); AND
• b. Animalia (animals).
MODERN SYSTEM
• Each kingdom (plant and animal) was divided into a
phylum* (division for plants)
• Each phylum into a smaller groups called class.
• Each class was divided into an order.
• Each order was divided into family (families).
• Each family was divided into a genus (plural-genera)
• Each genus was divided into a species. (scientific
name)
MODERN SYSTEM
MODERN SYSTEM
•His system for naming, ranking, and
classifying organisms is still in wide
use today, with a few changes. His
ideas on classification have
influenced generations of biologists
during and after his own lifetime.
 Early scientists who contributed or presented
ideas about how evolution occurs:

B. Thomas Malthus
• In the late 1700’s, a British economist Thomas Malthus
concluded that the rate of population was growing at a
faster rate than agricultural productivity.
• Malthus coined the term overpopulation.
• In 1798, at 32 years old British he anonymously published a
lengthy pamphlet criticizing the views of the Utopians who
believed that life could and would definitely improve for
humans on earth, titled An Essay on the Principle of
Population.
B. Thomas Malthus

• The Core Principles of Malthus/

Assumptions
• Food is necessary for human existence.
• Human population tends to grow faster or
have the basic urge to multiply than the
power in the earth to produce
subsistence.
B. Thomas Malthus

• However, Malthus also argued that

there are preventative checks and
positive checks on population that
slow its growth and keep the population
from rising exponentially for too long,
but still, poverty is inescapable and will
continue.
B. Thomas Malthus

• Preventative checks are those that affect the

birth rate
• Include: marrying at a later age (moral restraint),
abstaining from procreation, birth control
• Positive checks are those that increase the
death rate.
• Include: disease, war, disaster, and finally, when
other checks don't reduce population, famine.
Contribution of Malthus to Darwin:

• Darwin read the essay and it helped to refine

his ideas about evolution; the key point was
that plant and animal populations grow faster
than their food supply and eventually a
population is reduced by starvation, disease,
or other factors.
 Early scientists who contributed or presented
ideas about how evolution occurs:

C. George Cuvier
• French scientist who developed the science of
paleontology (the study of fossils).
• He noticed that organisms found in lower layers of
sedimentary rock were dissimilar to organisms
found today, and as you continue up the layers the
organisms begin to more closely resemble modern
day organisms.
• He found that rocks deeper in the Earth had much
different fossils than anything that was walking
around during his life time.
C. George Cuvier

• Catastrophism is the belief that each strata

of rock contained different fossils because it
was associated with a catastrophic event
(i.e. the flood in Genesis)
• The Earth was a place where catastrophes
happened and different animals emerged
afterwards.
C. George Cuvier
 C. George Cuvier
• Cuvier also classified animals according to their body plan (as
vertebrates, molluscs, those with jointed exoskeletons and those with
radial symmetry), a major advance in thinking about relationships.
• His extensive studies of fossils gave rise to the science of
paleontology, and he recognized that particular groups of fossil
organisms were associated with certain rock strata.
• In his view, life had existed unchanged on Earth for hundreds of
thousands of years, ever since the Creation.
 Early scientists who contributed or presented
ideas about how evolution occurs:

D. James Hutton
• Scottish geologist James Hutton (1726-1797) can
rightly be regarded as the father of modern
geology.
• In geology, gradualism is a theory developed by
James Hutton according to which profound
changes to the Earth, such as the Grand
Canyon, are due to slow continuous processes
and not to catastrophes as proposed by the
theory of catastrophism.
D. James Hutton
• Gradualism - states that geological changes are slow
and gradual and take long periods of time.
• This theory inspired an evolution theory in
paleontology, also called gradualism, according to
which the species appeared by the gradual
transformation of ancestral species.
• According to this theory, the population of a species is
transformed slowly and progressively into a new
species by the accumulation of micro-evolutionary
changes in the genetic heritage.
 D. James Hutton
• Hutton proposes that Earth is shaped by geological forces that took
place over extremely long periods of time. He estimates Earth to
be millions-not thousands-of years old.
• Hutton had argued that the Earth was transformed not by
unimaginable catastrophes but by imperceptibly slow changes,
many of which we can see around us today.
• It was not until the third version of the Theory of the Earth was
published when Hutton introduced his theory of gradualism. This is
where he recognized that change did occur, but that change was
the gradual culmination of slow processes happening over great
amounts of time.
 Early scientists who contributed or presented
ideas about how evolution occurs:

E. Charles Lyell
• In the second and final volume of Principles of
Geology, Lyell explains that processes occurring
now have shaped Earth's geological features over
long periods of time.
• In it, he advanced the idea that the Earth
gradually changes over time. Importantly, he
argued that geological processes that changed
the Earth were all occurring now. Given
sufficient time, the Earth can change a lot. This
idea is called uniformitarianism.
E. Charles Lyell

• Uniformitarianism – in geology, theory that

geological processes repeat themselves.
Change occurs through slow but steady
processes. The key to understanding geological
processes of the past lies in understanding
geological processes of the present. It states
that geologic processes have not changed
throughout earth’s history.
Darwin was strongly influenced by the
observations of Hutton and Lyell:

• a. First, if geologic change results from

slow, continuous actions rather than
sudden events, then Earth must be very
old,
• b. Second, very slow and subtle processes
persisting over a long period of time can
add up to substantial change.
E. Charles Lyell

• Lyell also discussed the fossil record and the

evidence that animals changed over time. Lyell
did not think that animals evolved. Instead,
species somehow were replaced. He speculated
that maybe the Earth went through cycles and
perhaps, in a future age, people might be gone
to be replaced again by reptiles.
E. Charles Lyell

•"The present is the key to the past,"

was the motto of uniformitarian
science. And Darwin, greatly
influenced by Lyell, extended that
principle into biology.
JEAN BAPTISTE LAMARCK’S THEORY ON
EVOLUTIONARY CHANGE

• Jean-Baptiste Lamarck
• Lamarck's proposed the first truly
cohesive theory of evolution, in which all
organisms had an innate tendency toward
perfection.
• He correctly argued that species change
over time, and that environmental forces
adapted them to local environments.
Jean-Baptiste Lamarck

• Lamarck is widely remembered for his

inaccurate theory of inheritance of acquired
characteristics in which the use and disuse
of physiologic features differentiated
organisms over time.
• He placed fossils in an evolutionary context
and published a theory of evolution in
1809.
His theory used two common ideas of his
time:

• 1) Use and disuse - parts of the body used on a

regular basis become larger and stronger; those
not used deteriorate.

• 2) Inheritance of these acquired characteristics

(I.e., the modifications) - are passed onto the
offspring.
Lamarck’s theory was based on observations
of fossils, but gave no mechanism for
evolution.

• EXAMPLE:
• An example is the giraffe: having stripped the
leaves from the lower branches of a tree, the
animal tries to reach leaves on upper branches.
• The neck becomes slightly longer.
• The longer neck is passed on to offspring.
Lamarck – Contributions

1. All species evolve over time.

2. A species evolves in response to its
environment and becomes better adapted to
that environment.
3. Changes are passed on from generation to
generation.
 CHARLES DARWIN
• He is an English naturalist who developed the theory
of natural selection using his own observations, and
work from Malthus, Cuvier, and Lyell.
• → made observations while on the HMS Beagle, 5-
year voyage
• → noticed some similarities and differences between
species of animals and plants on different continents
• → made several important observations while on the
Galapagos Islands especially the finches.
CHARLES DARWIN’S VOYAGE AND HIS
OBSERVATIONS
• In 1831, Darwin was asked to
voyage on the HMS Beagle as an
unofficial naturalist. What he
found would challenge the
traditional belief that species are
unchanging.
• HMS Beagle – the ship in which
the naturalist, Charles Darwin,
sailed around the world between
1831 and 1836.
 What Darwin Saw During His Voyage?

• Galapagos Islands – Darwin found signs

that species evolve. He was struck by
the fact that the flora and fauna of the
islands and those of the nearby coast
of South America resembled each
other.
• Darwin proposed that the ancestors of
Galapagos species must have migrated
to the islands from S.America long ago
and changed after they arrived.
Darwin’s views are thought to be
revolutionary because:
• At that time scientists thought the
Earth was only a few thousand years
old.
• Also, plants and living species were
fixed and unchanging.
• Catastrophic events were believed to
be the only cause of change of
existence of species.
As he traveled, Darwin noticed three
distinctive patterns of biological diversity:

•1. Species Vary Globally

•2. Species Vary Locally
•3. Species Vary Overtime
 1. Species Vary Globally

• Darwin noticed that different, yet ecologically similar, animal

species inhabited separated, but ecologically similar, habitats
around the globe.
• For example, Darwin found flightless, ground-dwelling birds
called rheas living in the grassland of South America. Rheas
look and act a lot like ostriches. Yet rheas live only in South
America, and ostriches live only in Africa. When Darwin
visited Australia’s grasslands, he found another large
flightless bird, the emu.
 2. Species Vary Locally

• Darwin noticed that different, yet related,

animal species often occupied different habitats
within a local area.
• For example, Darwin found two species of rheas
living in South America: one in Argentina’s
grasslands and the other in the colder, harsher
grass and scrubland to the south.
 3. Species Vary Over Time

• Darwin also collected fossils, which are the preserved

remains or traces of ancient organisms.
• Darwin noticed that some fossils were similar to
living species.
• One set of fossils unearthed by Darwin belonged to
the long-extinct glyptodont (a giant armored animal
similar to the armadillo). Darwin wondered if the
armadillo might be related to the ancient glyptodont.
Darwin had found around 15 different species of
finch when he was on the Galapagos Islands.

•He noticed that the birds were similar to

other finches in lots of ways, but their
beaks were all different shapes.
•He realized that the different beaks
matched the type of food available on
each island.
• Darwin decided that there was only one
way this could have happened.
• The birds must have adapted to their
environment over time.
• This led him to another idea, which he
called the survival of the fittest.
Survival of the Fittest
• The ability of an organism to survive and reproduce in
its specific environment is fitness.
• Darwin proposed that fitness is the result of
adaptations.
• An adaptation is any inherited characteristic that
increases an organism's chance of survival.
• Beneficial adaptations better suit organisms to their
environment, and in turn, they’re better able to survive
and reproduce.
Survival of the Fittest

• Individuals with characteristics that are

not well suited to their environment
either die or leave few offspring.
• Adaptation – the changing of a species
that results in its being better suited to
its environment
Survival of the Fittest

• Darwin suggested that those plants and

animals best-suited to their environment are
more likely to survive and pass on their
characteristics to their offspring. Over a long
period of time, the characteristics of the
surviving members of the species will come
to predominate.
 Comparing Lamarck’s and Darwin’s
Theories
• Question: Why is it that giraffes have long necks?
Lamarck’s answer:
→ giraffes stretched their necks in
order to reach the leaves in trees to
eat (law of use and disuse)
→ the stretched neck acquired
throughout a parent’s life was
passed on to its offspring
(inheritance of acquired
characteristics)
Darwin’s answer:
→ in the beginning, there were giraffes
with short necks and giraffes with long
necks
→ the long-necked giraffes could reach
the food easier while short-necked giraffes
could not. The short-necked giraffes died
off due to starvation
→ the long-necked giraffes produced more
giraffes with long necks, and eventually all
giraffes has long necks.
 WRITING AND PUBLICATION OF ‘THE ORIGIN
OF SPECIES’

• In 1859 Darwin published his work in a book

titled, “Origin of Species”.
• Proposed the mechanism of evolution as natural
selection of species
• Almost had ideas presented before publishing the
book by Alfred Wallace.
• Change the face of biology and other scientific
disciplines.
 ALFRED RUSSELL WALLACE
• A British naturalist who was the co-
discoverer of the theory of evolution.
• Wallace developed some of his most
important ideas about natural
selection during an eight-year
expedition to observe wildlife and
collect specimens.
• Wallace collected more than 100,000
insect, bird and animal specimens,
which he gave to British museums.
 ALFRED RUSSELL WALLACE
• By 1855, Wallace had come to the conclusion that LIVING
THINGS EVOLVE. But he didn’t figure out how until one
night, three years later, he was on the island of
Halmahera, ill with a fever, when it came to him:
• Animals evolve by adapting to their environment.
• In June 1958, he sent a letter to Darwin stating his theory
of natural selection; although he wrote up his ideas for
publication first, Darwin developed and supported the
theory of natural selection so much more extensively that
Darwin is known as its main architect;
ALFRED RUSSELL WALLACE

• But, Darwin’s notebooks prove that he

formulated his theory 15 years before reading
Wallace’s manuscript.
• The following year, Darwin published his book
“Origin of Species” and rose to fame. As
Wallace helped discover evolution, he then
became extinct.
 DARWIN’S THEORY OF EVOLUTION BY
NATURAL SELECTION

• He was famous because he came up with an idea that

changed the way we think about life on earth
forever; THE THEORY OF EVOLUTION.
• Darwin realized Malthus’s ideas apply to all species.
Every organism has the potential to produce many
offspring during its lifetime. In most cases, only a
limited number of those offspring survive to
reproduce.
DARWIN’S THEORY OF EVOLUTION BY
NATURAL SELECTION

•Remember: Individuals that have

physical or behavioural traits that
better suit their environment are
more likely to survive and reproduce
than those that do not have such
traits. –Charles Darwin
 DARWIN’S THEORY OF EVOLUTION BY
NATURAL SELECTION

• Natural selection – process by which

populations change in response to their
environment.

• Darwin suggested that organisms differ from

place to place because their habitats present
different challenges to, and opportunities for
survival and reproduction.
 Darwin's concept of natural selection was
based on several key observations:

a. Traits are often

heritable. In living
organisms, many
characteristics are
inherited, or passed
from parent to
offspring. (Darwin
knew this was the case,
even though he did not
know that traits were
inherited via genes.)
Darwin's concept of natural selection was
based on several key observations:
b. More offspring are
produced than can
survive. Organisms are
capable of producing
more offspring than their
environments can
support. Thus, there is
competition for limited
resources in each
generation.
 Darwin's concept of natural selection was
based on several key observations:

c. Offspring vary in their

heritable traits. The
offspring in any
generation will be slightly
different from one
another in their traits
(colour, size, shape,
etc.), and many of these
features will be heritable
 DARWIN’S THEORY OF EVOLUTION BY
NATURAL SELECTION

• Natural selection = differential reproductive

success.
• Natural selection occurs as a result of interaction
between the environment and genetic variability in
the population.
• The outcome of natural selection is the adaptation
of populations to their environment.
 THE MODERN SYNTHESIS OF EVOLUTIONARY
THEORY (NEO-DARWINISM)
• It explained how the discoveries of Gregor Mendel fit
with Charles Darwin's theory of evolution by means of
natural selection. As Mendel found out how we inherit
our genes.
• It describes the fusion (merger) of Mendelian genetics
with Darwinian evolution that resulted in a unified theory
of evolution.
• The Modern Synthesis was developed by a number of
now-legendary evolutionary biologists in the 1930s and
1940s.
Four forces of evolution were identified
as contributing to changes in allele
frequencies. These are:
• A. random genetic drift, (describes random
changes in allele frequencies in a population)
• B. gene flow (describes allele frequency changes
due to the immigration and emigration of
individuals)
• C. mutation; (alterations in the DNA sequences)
and
• D. natural selection (best-adapted organisms
have the highest survival rate)
 The modern theory of the mechanism of
evolution differs from Darwinism in three
important respects:
• 1. It recognizes several mechanisms of evolution in addition
to natural selection. One of these, random genetic drift, may
be as important as natural selection.
• 2. It recognizes that characteristics are inherited as discrete
entities called genes. Variation within a population is due to
the presence of multiple alleles of a gene.
• 3. It postulates that speciation is (usually) due to the gradual
accumulation of small genetic changes.
THE MODERN SYNTHESIS OF EVOLUTIONARY
THEORY (NEO-DARWINISM)

• In other words, the Modern Synthesis is a theory

about how evolution works at the level of genes,
phenotypes, and populations whereas Darwinism
was concerned mainly with organisms, speciation
and individuals. This is a major paradigm shift and
those who fail to appreciate it find themselves out
of step with the thinking of evolutionary
biologists.