What is Earth Science

Earth science (also known as the geosciences or the

Earth sciences) is an all-embracing term for the
sciences related to the planet Earth

Earth sciences may include the study of the atmosphere,

hydrosphere, oceans and biosphere, as well as the solid
earth

Typically Earth scientists will use tools from

physics, chemistry, biology, chronology and
mathematics
 Fields of study
Geology describes the rocky parts of the Earth's crust
(or lithosphere) and its historic development. Major
subdisciplines are mineralogy and petrology,
geochemistry, geomorphology, paleontology,
stratigraphy, structural geology, engineering geology
and sedimentology
Physical geography covers aspects of geomorphology,
soil study, hydrology, meteorology, climatology and
biogeography
Geophysics and geodesy investigate the
shape of the Earth, its reaction to forces and its magnetic
and gravity fields. Geophysicists explore the Earth's core
and mantle as well as the tectonic and seismic activity of
the lithosphere
 Fields of study…………..
Soil science covers the outermost layer of the Earth's
crust that is subject to soil formation processes
Oceanography and hydrology describe the marine and
freshwater domains of the water parts of the Earth
Glaciology covers the icy parts of the Earth
Atmospheric sciences cover the gaseous parts of the
Earth (or atmosphere) between the surface and the
exosphere (about 1000 km). Major subdisciplines are
meteorology, climatology, atmospheric chemistry and
atmospheric physics
Historical development of Geophysics
Motivated by Two factors
 Research curiosity of humankind related to Planet
Earth

 Economical usage of Earth resources (ore deposits,

petroleum, water resources, etc.) and Earth-related
hazards such as earthquakes, volcanoes, tsunamis,
tides, and floods
Historical development of Geophysics

The word "Geophysik“ was first used in 1834 by Julius

Fröbel
The word geophysics appeared in print only a few
times between 1834 and the 1880
The term geophysics appeared sporadically through
the 1860s and 1870s in Germany
General research into the history of geophysics has
been done by the "commission for history of
geophysics and cosmical physics" (Bremen) under the
direction of Wilfried Schröder
Historical development of Geophysics

In circa 240 BC, Eratosthenes of Cyrene measured the

circumference of the Earth, using trigonometry and
the angle of the Sun at more than one latitude in Egypt
A natural explanation of volcanoes was first
undertaken by the Greek philosopher Empedocles (c.
490-430 B.C.),
the first modern experimental treatise was
William Gilbert's De Magnete (1600),
1687 Isaac Newton published his Principia, which not
only laid the foundations for classical mechanics and
gravitation but also explained a variety of geophysical
phenomena
Earth’s shape, density, and gravity field (Pierre
Bouguer; Alexis Clairaut and Henry Cavendish),
Earth’s magnetic field (Alexander von Humboldt,
Edmund Halley and Carl Friedrich Gauss), seismology
(John Milne and Robert Mallet), and Earth's age, heat
and radioactivity (Arthur Holmes and
William Thomson, 1st Baron Kelvin).

The thermoscope, or Galileo thermometer was

constructed by Galileo Galilei in 1607
Blaise Pascal (in 1648) rediscovered that atmospheric
pressure decreases with height, and deduced that
there is a vacuum above the atmosphere
The 20th century was a revolutionary age for geophysics
In the second half of 20th century, plate tectonics
theory was developed by several contributors
The theory of seafloor spreading was developed in 1960
by Harry Hammond Hess
The Ocean Drilling Program started in 1966.
International Geophysical Year or IGY was celebrated
in 1957-1958
Industrial applications of geophysics were developed by
demand of petroleum exploration and recovery in the
1920s
Earthquake hazard minimization, soil/site
investigations for earthquake prone areas were a new
application of geophysical engineering in the 1990s
Introduction to Whole Earth Geophysics
and Tectonics
 The application of physical principles to the study of
the earth. Includes branches of seismology,
geothermometry, hydrology, physical
oceanography, meteorology, gravity and geodesy,
terrestrial magnetometry, tectonophysics,
engineering and exploration geophysics,
geochronology, and geocosmogony.

 The study of the earth by quantitative physical
methods, especially by seismic reflection and
refraction, gravity, magnetic, electromagnetic, and
radioactivity methods.
Geophysics
 Based on measuring five Earth properties:

1. Density (measured as the local force of gravity).

2. Magnetization (measured as the local magnetic force).

3. Acoustical response (measured in terms of voltages derived

from geophones or hydrophones).

4. Electrochemical (measured by various electrodes, Geiger

counters, etc).

5. Heat flow (crustal thickness)

Potential Field Methods
 The measured strength and direction
depends on your position of observation
within the field.
 The measured strength of the field generally

decreases with increased distance.

 Gravity and magnetic are potential field

methods.
Gravity Methods
 Measures localized changes in the
acceleration of gravity as a result of changes
in density.
 Affected by the thickening or thinning of the
crust.
 Affected by the presence or absence of mass
(mountains or deep valleys).
 Used to measure crustal thickness, obtain
information on deep crustal structure, and
obtain information on transitional crustal
zones (continental margins).
Magnetic Methods
Measures localized changes in the direction and strength
of the magnetic field as a result of changes in magnetic
susceptibility (χ) and remnant magnetism (Jrem).
 Identification of magnetic reversal stripes on the sea
floor was one of the key components of recognizing
plate tectonics.
 Paleomagnetism and polar wander curves were critical
in determining the locations of continental plates
during geologic time.
 Paleomagnetism were critical in determining the
presence of exotic terranes.
 Used to map the transition zone between continental
and oceanic crust.
 Used to map deep crustal structure.
Seismic Methods
 Measures the rigidity or elastic properties by
examining the velocity of seismic waves through
the Earth.

 Natural sources of seismic waves are earthquakes.

 An example of man made or induced sources are

explosions or striking a surface with a hammer.
Seismic Methods

 Essential for determining the composition,

phase, and depth boundaries of the Earth’s
interior.

 Essential data for developing the plate tectonic

paradigm.
Heat Flow Methods
Measures the thermal conductivity (k) of the rocks
and their geothermal gradient to calculate heat
flow (q).

Essential for understanding plate motion, rifting, and

hot spots.