ARGUMENTS

In logic and philosophy, an argument is a

series of statements, called the premises,
intended to determine the degree of truth of
another statement, the conclusion.
However, a number of arguments may be based on faulty reasoning

FALLACIES

Some of the fallacies are intentional, as the person

making the claim is desperate to convince to accept his or
her argument.
Examples of Fallacies:

FALLACY CHARACTERISTICS EXAMPLE

1. Ad hominem Attacking the person We cannot listen to
presenting the John’s opinion on global
argument instead of the warming because he is a
argument itself. tree hugger.
Examples of Fallacies:

2. Appeal to force Using the threat of force Student: I deserve an A

or an undesirable event in the course. You know
to advance an argument that my father is a good
friend of the principal.
3. Appeal to emotion Using emotions such as I realize I’m not
pity or sympathy qualified, but if you
don’t give me this job,
my children will starve.
 Examples of Fallacies:

4. Appeal to the popular The ideas is presented All the popular, cool
as acceptable because a kids have tattoos;
lot of people accept it therefore, I should get a
tattoo too.
5. Appeal to tradition The idea is acceptable I was raised in a
because it has been true Christian family for
for a long time many years. We were
Christians for five
generations. Therefore,
I must marry a Christian
guy and raise my kid as
a Christian.
 Examples of Fallacies:

6. Begging the question Assuming the thing or I have a right to free

idea to be proven is speech, therefore you
true; also known as cannot stop me from
“circular argument” talking.
7. cause-and-effect Assuming a “cause-and- I was raised in a
effect” relationship Christian family for
between unrelated many years. We were
events. Christians for five
generations. Therefore,
I must marry a Christian
guy and raise my kid as
a Christian.
Examples of Fallacies:

8. Fallacy of Assuming that what is These cases of robbery

composition true of a part is true for in this district have
the whole convinced me that the
city has become a den
of thieves and criminals.
9. Fallacy of division Assuming that what is You come from a family
true for the whole is true of doctors and
for its parts. intellectuals! Surely you
can do better in this
course.
 When looking at an opinion, be aware of bias or the personal views
of the person presenting it

Biases are not necessarily errors in reasoning, but refer to

tendencies or influences which affect the views of people.
 Examples of biases:
1. Correspondence bias Tendency to judge a These soldiers who
or attribution effect person’s personality by fought in the war are all
his or her actions, bloodthirsty murderers!
without regard for
external factors or
influences
2. Confirmation bias Tendency to look for How can I accept his
and readily accept view that there is no
information which fits God? I am a Christian
one’s own beliefs or
views and to reject ideas
or views that go against
it
Examples of biases:
3. Framing Focusing on a certain Preliminary evidence has
aspect of a problem while still not pointed out the
ignoring other aspects actual cause of the plane
crash, but investigators
are currently focusing on
the possibility of pilot
error.
4. hindsight The tendency to see past Magellan’s assault on
events as predictable, or Mactan Island was a
to ascribe a pattern to foolhardy venture, made
historical events by an overconfident,
careless man who
underestimated the valor
of the native Filipinos.
 Examples of biases:
5. Conflict of interest A person or group is As the daughter of the
connected to or has a accused, I believe I have
vested interest in the the right to express my
issue being discussed. opinion on the issue of
his alleged corrupt
practices.
6. Cultural bias Analyzing an event or I do not agree with this
issue based on one’s Western practice of
cultural standards. placing aged parents in
retirement homes. We
Filipinos take care of our
family members.