UNIT-3 DESIGN OF LANDFORMS IN A SITE

 CONTOURS

 REPRESENTATION OF LANDFORMS AND LANDFORM DESIGN

 INTERPOLATION OF CONTOURS

 SLOPE ANALYSIS, USES AND FUNCTION

 GRADING - SYMBOLS AND GRADING AND ALIGNMENT OF PATHS/ROADS,

ANGLE OF REPOSE AND USE OF RETAINING WALLS. GRADING TERRACES.

 DRAINAGE - SURFACE DRAINAGE, FUNCTIONAL AND AESTHETIC

CONSIDERATIONS
CONTOUR: An imaginary line on the surface of the earth
connecting points of the same elevation.

CONTOUR INTERVALS: The difference in elevation between

two contours.
RULES OF CONTOURS

 Existing contours are drawn with dashed lines. Proposed contours are drawn with
solid lines
 Contours never cross.
 All contour lines are close on themselves.
 The steepest slope is along a line perpendicular to the contour lines. Water will always
flow downhill in a line perpendicular to contour lines.
 Contour lines never merge into one another. However, on a vertical face, such as a
retaining wall, they may appear to merge on the plan sheet.
Land and Landforms
LANDFORM CHARACTERISTICS

Topography Map

Contour interval is 20 m http://wapedia.mobi/thumb/

Land and Landforms

LANDFORM CHARACTERISTICS

Landform in Plan & Section

Contour interval is 25 m

http://www.fao.org/docrep/003/T0390E/T0390E18.gif

Land and Landforms

LANDFORM CHARACTERISTICS

Landform in Profile

Introduction to Landscape Design – John L. Motloch

Land and Landforms

LANDFORM CHARACTERISTICS

Ridge & Valley

Ridge – are topographic divides that

separate the landscapes into a series of
drainage areas called watershed.

Contour interval is 2 m

Land and Landforms

LANDFORM CHARACTERISTICS

Ridge – Valley - Watershed

Contour Interval is 2 m

Introduction to Landscape Design – John L. Motloch

Land and Landforms
LANDFORM CHARACTERISTICS

Ridge – Valley – Watershed – Catchment of a River

The precipitation that falls into a valley, and on surrounding area flows downward usually creating a stream
or river. The area of land that contributes water to a stream or river is called a watershed, or drainage basin.

http://www.kidsgeo.com/

Watersheds are important in Environmental Management and Land-use Planning.

Land and Landforms
LANDFORM REPRESENTATION
Contours are always horizontal and
perpendicular to the dip of the land,
i.e. the direction in which water
would run at that location;

All contours are closed lines, unless

cut off by the margin of the map;

Contours become closer as the slope

of the terrain steepens;

If the contour interval is too large,

low relief will not be recorded;

Neighboring contours do not cross or

touch each other, with the exception
of cliffs and overhangs.

http://www.fao.org/docrep/003/T0390E/T0390E18.gif
Land and Landforms
LANDFORM REPRESENTATION
Hachure showing Mt. Elburus

http://mapmaker.rutgers.edu/355/Hachures_MtElburus.png
Land and Landforms
LANDFORM MANIPULATION / LANDFORM AS DESIGN ENTITY

Landform manipulation is done to attain design solutions regarding,

Landform as a Profile
Landform as Enclosure
Landform as Comfort
• Slope Consideration,
• Drainage characteristics,
• Ventilation

Land and Landforms

Landform as a Profile

Angular landforms imparts energy and Boldness

Sinuous landforms evokes passivity and softness

Architectonic Landform: form as straight lines and

hard corners

Naturalistic Landform: form as undulating lines and no

corners.

When the landform is established as a system in dialogue with the architecture, then the
dynamic interplay of the opposites complement each other through contrast.
Land and Landforms
Landform as a Enclosure

The space enclosed that can be seen is called the View-shed

More the View-shed increases the Landscape

becomes expansive and the grain becomes coarser.

More the View-shed decreases the Landscape

becomes enclosed and the grain becomes finer.

Military crest or the Valley view, give a feeling of

centrality because views from the surrounding slopes
are focused downwards in to the valley.

Ridgelines and Promontories are visually open zones,

though they do offer a panoramic views, they
themselves are visible from a great distances.

Land and Landforms

Landform as Comfort

Ventilation

When the valleys and ridgelines orient along the

direction of seasonal airflow, the valleys are relatively
well ventilated.

When the wind flow direction is perpendicular some

of the wind can blow over and the valley is said to be
in the wind shadow region.

Topographic relief functions as a barrier to and deflector of airflow. As wind blows along the
surface its velocity is affected by the shape of that surface.

Land and Landforms

Landform as Comfort

Ventilation

As a designer the site can be resculpted to funnel desirable breeze into use areas, while
protecting the same areas from undesirable winds.
Land and Landforms
Landform and Comfort

Slope
Slope is considered regarding the best area for placing the building, roads, parking lots and
other features on a particular site.

Slope Category:
Contour Interval
0% - 5% - this indicates a very gradual slope.
% of Slope =
Placement of buildings and roads are ideal in this Distance Between
slope.
the Contours

5% - 15% - this indicates a considerable steep slope.

Placement of buildings can be on terraces to avoid soil
erosion. Roads need to be as much parallel to the
contour.

15% and more- this indicates a very steep slope. Any

kind of construction on this slope is unadvisable.
Conservation of this landform is necessary.

Land and Landforms

Landform and Comfort

Slope Analysis

River Kushawati Basin

15% and above Slope

5% - 15% Slope

0% - 5% Slope

Land and Landforms

Landform and Comfort
Gravity flow systems include Storm and Sanitary Sewerage System
Drainage and are directly tied to the topography.

Infrastructural Systems consists of two basic kinds:

•Gravity Flow System &
Watershed divides and ridge lines are natural
•Pressure Flow System boundaries for GRAVITY FLOW SYSTEMS.

Land and Landforms

Landform as Comfort

Surface Drainage

At Site Level,
Surface flow is caused to flow around rather
than through the building.

This is achieved by creating Subtle Swales.

Grading a site to effect site drainage is a major design concern, it must be considered early and
throughout the design process, because it has significant implications on the development form.

Land and Landforms

LANDFORM STYLES

Wind ward side of the landform has thin soil,

due to soil erosion unless protected with
vegetation.

Blending of Natural Landforms with the engineered

Introduction to Landscape Design – John L. Motloch

Land and Landforms

SLOPE DYNAMICS

Fills placed on an
inclined plane
tend towards
displacement.
GRADING

Grading means reshaping the topography of the site.

Grading can add interest to a landscape site to solve many problems and
promote proper drainage.

IMPORTANCE OF GRADING

Architects must ensure that grading becomes an integral part of the

design process on a part with location of buildings , circulation
planning and the recognition and use of all landscape qualities.
Site grading and drainage are important factors in the planning, design and
development of a project as well as implementation of community improvement
and infrastructure programs.
This section of planning sets forth site grading techniques that can reduce
costs, minimize environment impacts and preserves views, natural land
contours and desert landscapes and vegetation.
 DEFINITIONS
BERMS: The continuous artificial contouring of a slope or water channel bank.
CONTOUR: An imaginary line on the surface of the earth connecting points of the
same elevation.
CONTOUR INTERVALS: The difference in elevation between two contours.
CROSS SECTION: The representation of a landform as it would appear if cut and by
an intersecting plane.
CUT: That part of the ground surface that, when graded, is lower than the original
ground.
FILL: That part of the ground surface that when graded is higher than the original
ground.
FINISH GRADING: Minor changes to finalize a prepared earth surface to its desired
grade.
GRADING: Modification of the ground surface by cuts and fills.
PROFILE: The representation of a landform seen from side.
 FUNCTIONAL AND AESTHETIC REASONS FOR
GRADING

1.Grading for drainage

2.Grading to create berms
3.Grading to create levelled areas
4.Grading to modify existing landforms
5.Grading to increase site interest
6.Grading related to good views
7.Grading related to bad views
8.Grading to fit structures to sites
9.Grading to emphasize or control circulation
Grading for drainage
Surface drainage can be achieved by pitching surfaces to natural drainage
features and systems.
Grading to create berms
Berms can be created for noise and wind barriers or for additional soil
depth above unfavorable subgrade conditions,such as a high groundwater
table.
Grading to create level areas
Relatively flat gradients are needed for sports fields, outdoor terraces
and sometimes for area near buildings.
Grading to modify existing landforms
Deep gullies, narrow bridges or steep slopes can be modified to create
more useful and attractive landforms.
Grading for increased site interest
Grading can help emphasize a sites topography or add interest to an
otherwise flat site.
Grading to emphasize or control circulation
GUIDELINES TO BE FOLLOWED:

It should preserve the natural terrain, protects the existing desert landscapes
character and has minimum visual impacts on the City of Surprise.
Ensures the stability of foothills slopes
Reduce water runoff and control erosion by maintaining the natural features of
land to reduce erosion and minimize storm water runoff.
Minimize site disturbance in order to maximize compatibility with natural
terrain.
Minimizes the need for public services where the ability to provide such
services is limited by terrain and
Encourages the conservation of foothills and steeper hillside areas as visual
resources, parks, open spaces, conservation areas and other related land uses.
 Mass grading of large land parcels should be discouraged in order to
prevent damage to such sensitive and environmental aspects of the site as
existing vegetative cover, washes and drainage patterns.
 The grading concept for any site should seek to balance cut and fill on
the site to avoid off-site stockpiling and further damage to natural
topography.
 The utilization of terracing along natural land contours and other grading
techniques that respect the natural topography.
 Grading of new project sites should blend with the contours of adjacent
properties

 When Grading is done in a already developed area ,it should be done such
that there is little or no impact on immediately adjacent development
including subsurface infrastructure.

 Grading plans for sites adjacent to natural open space should ensure that
any grading of the developable site will have minimum impact on the
sensitive natural areas.

 Newly graded slopes should be planted with appropriate erosion control plant
materials

 Correct grading and drainage prevents soil erosion and stops water from
accumulating
 Ensure that slope gradients for such hardscape open space areas as plazas that are
proposed for a site are minimized to accommodate ease of pedestrian movement

 Avoid soil and debris spillover and trampling of vegetation in areas adjacent to the
project site when implementing grading operations

 For sites where large areas to be graded grading operations should avoid clearing the
ground far in advance of site grading to limit erosion

 Strip and stockpile top soil for reuse ,prior to grading the site.

 Provide dust control measures during grading

 Include mitigation measures of any hazardous materials found existing on the site during
grading operations.

 Undertake any required mitigation measures of archaeological sites as part of project

grading operations
 GRADING CRITERIA

GENERAL LANDSCAPE ELEMENTS:

1. RECOMMENDEND GRADIENTS:
Grading of outdoor areas is aimed at controlling surface storm water runoff
while providing safe and efficient pedestrian and vehicular movement.
Especially all surfaces should have some slope or pitch for proper drainage .

2. EARTH FILL AGAINST BUILDINGS:

Earth fill against buildings may be desirable for insulation or aesthetic
reasons. It is important to note, however that soil and related moisture may cause
decay and/or promote the growth of insects that may damage or destroy some of
the materials used in the construction of the buildings.
The exterior surfacing and structural system of a building determine the height
to which fill may be brought up against a structure.
ATHLETIC FIELDS:
RECOMMENDED GRADIENTS FOR OUTDOOOR SPORTS:
1. Baseball and football
2.Football/Soccer/Field hockey
3. Court games
ROADWAYS:
1. GRADNG AND ALLIGNMENT:
Roadway design consists of two major phases-
a. alignment of the road i.e giving horizontal and vertical direction .
b. grading the adjacent landscape to the edge of the road.
DETAILS AND SPECIAL CONDITIONS:
Several typical elements found in a landscape involve special grading. Some of the most
common ones are discussed below.
1. SWALES AND DITCHES
Typically swales are shallow have a parabolic cross section and are very wide , while
ditches are deeper and have a narrower geometric configuration.

Stormwater management swales are commonly used in grading to move water gently
from one part of the site to another .Their function is to collect and divert the flow of
surface runoff away from critical parts of a site. At their terminus, swales must either spread
the channelized water into sheet drainage or empty the water into a ditch, stream, or
underground drainage system.
2. CULVERTS AND HEADWALLS:
The grading scheme and the design of the headwall for a culvert must be totally
integrated.
3. SLOPES AND BERMS:
a. Provide for non erosive drainage at the tops and bottoms of slopes.
b. Grade the tops of banks to be smoothly convex and the toes smoothly concave.
c. Grade the slopes to blend in with the surrounding landscape.
Berms are used to
Visually screen distracting views.
Provide and enhance corridor continuity
Mitigate safety hazards
Provide noise abatement either alone or in conjunction with noise walls
Waste material from other sites
Retain or detain surface water flow
Berms can be used to balance cut and fill.
Materials used in berms must allow for the stability of the berm.The material used will
determine the angle of the slope
Fine grain materials such as clays ,silts require a flatter slope for stability.
When noise walls are constructed on a berm the materials must be able to support the
weight of the noise wall.
4. STAIRS AND RAMPS:
Stairs and ramps should be designed as a integral part of any overall grading plan.
5. EXISTING TRESS:
 To avoid grading, cutting or filling above the root zone of a tree.
 If filling around an existing tree cannot be avoided then the tree must be protected.
 Another way to create a flat area and at the same time protect existing trees. A deck is
constructed with footings that do not disturb the root system around a tree.
6. EROSION CONTROL BY GRADING:
 Most erosion is caused by flowing water.
The size and shape of a watershed, the length and gradient of its slopes and channels are
key determinants controlling the risk of erosion.
 Gradients can be reduced by extending the length of a slope. This uses more land but it
does reduce the amount of erosion.
7. SOIL SLIPPAGE:
The most common causes are improper cuts or fills and insufficient attention to surface
and subsurface drainage characteristics.
8. GRADING FOR POROUS PAVED SURFACES:
The use of gravel, crushed stone or other types of porous paving allows either
flatter or steeper gradients than bare soil. Some artificial turf systems require an
extremely porous sub base so that water will immediately penetrate the surface. This
water must then be carried by a subsurface drainage system. this system allows surfaces
to be graded flat.
9.GRADING OF PARKING AREAS:
 The minimum and maximum gradients required for vehicular access and parking areas
are often the major determinants for the grading plan of the site.
 The recommended maximum cross slope for a parking area is 10 percent.
 Combination of ramps and segmented parking bays may be used to achieve a grading
solution on a slope with existing vegetation.
METHODS OF EXPRESSING SLOPE

Slope is expressed in terms of the following

1.Percentage
2.A proportional ratio
3.A degree of slope
PERCENTAGE (OF SLOPE)

Percentage of slope is expressed as the number of meters (feet)rise in

100m of horizontal distance , typically referred to as rise/run. If the slope
rises 2 m in 100m . It is considered a 2 percent slope. The percentage of
slope can be calculated by the following formula.
G=D/L * 100
Where D=vertical rise ,mm(ft)
L=horizontal distance ,mm(ft)
G=gradient,%
PROPORTION (OF SLOPE)
Slopes can also be expressed as a ratio of the horizontal distance to
the vertical rise ,such as three to one(3:1). The ratio method is used typically
for slopes 4:1 or steeper.
DEGREE (OF SLOPE)
Slope is expressed in degrees only on large scale earth moving
projects such as strip mining and other extractive operations.

SPOT ELEVATIONS:
Spot elevations are used to establish limits of slope ,to locate
contour lines ,and to provide detail for establishing control
points that cannot be obtained via contour lines.
 GRADING CONCEPTS
SCHEMATIC GRADING ALTERNATIVES FOR A DEFINED AREA:
Slopes less than about 2 percent in the open landscape appear flat to
the human eye.
However in areas adjacent to built structures ,even the slightest
slopes becomes noticeable.
1.PERIMETER EDGE LEVEL:
It is the alternative methods for
manipulating a surface for drainage while allowing at least
one peripheral edge to remain levels.

2.TWO PERIMETER EDGES LEVEL:

Drainage schemes need to be
applicable when two perimeter edges need to be leveled.
3.ENTIRE AREA LEVEL :
Some circumstances ,such as rooftop landscapes or
enclosed courtyards ,require that the entire surface of the
enclosed area be level.
Two ways that area can remain level and still drain
properly by the use of porous surface material ,such as
sand/gravel ,or by the use of individually elevated pavers.
Each case requires an adequate drainage system beneath the
pavers to carry of the required rainfall effectively.
SCHEMATIC GRADING ALTERNATIVES FOR OPEN AREAS:
There are several ways to solve grading problems when surrounding
buildings do not fully enclose an area to be graded and there is sufficient
peripheral space for transition to surrounding areas.
These alternatives are specially applicable to relatively flat surfaces
,such as tennis courts and other types of game courts.
 (1) PREPARING A SITE GRADING PLAN:
Grading of a site should be thought of as a systematic process that begins
with the analysis and understanding of the existing site and ends with an
overall detailed grading plan.
(2)SITE ANALYSIS:
Study the general lay of the land by using topographic maps and the site
visits.
1. Determine high points, low points , ridges and valleys.
2. Note natural drainage systems and directions of flow that exists on the
site.
SCHEMATIC GRADING PLANS:
Determine general use areas ,set building floor areas by spot elevations
and diagram drainage flow using slope arrows pointing along the
direction of flow .This will help in the following procedures.
1. Developing a general landform concept.
2. Locating swales and surface water flow.
3. Locating drainage receptacles.
4. Calculating water runoff for various areas
5. Defining an area that could be altered (raised or lowered) with limited
impact on drainage or existing areas .This area could be used to help
balance any surplus cut or fill.
RULES OF CONTOURS

 Existing contours are drawn with dashed lines. Proposed contours are drawn
with solid lines
 Contours never cross.
 All contour lines are close on themselves.
 The steepest slope is along a line perpendicular to the contour lines. Water will
always flow downhill in a line perpendicular to contour lines.
 Contour lines never merge into one another. However, on a vertical face,
such as a retaining wall, they may appear to merge on the plan sheet.
Segmented parking with walls and trees
 EARTHWORK PROCESS

GRADING AS APART OF SEQUENTIAL DESIGN PROCESS

PREPARATION OF THE SITE:
1. CLEANING,GRUBBING AND REMOVAL-Remove designated trees
and other types of vegetation from an area to be graded. The existing plant
material to be removed should be chopped and mixed with topsoil.
2.TOPSOIL STRIPPING-strip to specified depth(may vary from 75 to 600
mm) and stockpile the stripped topsoil in locations of the project
EXCAVATION AND PREPARATION OF SUBGRADE:
1. Cut to the elevations indicated on the grade stakes set by the engineer.
2. fill for planted areas should be compacted only enough to retain 30 percent
minimum.
3. fill material must be put down in 150 to 200 mm.
4. topsoil is added last to bring the grades to the levels and slopes.
ROCK IN RELATION TO GRADINGS:
In preparing a grading plan that involves rock, the most useful data
includes:
1. amount of soil cover
2. amount of top layer rock which can be broken easily
3. amount of rock will have to be blasted
4. basic type of rock
Rocks are of three major types –igneous
sedimentary
metamorphic
CONTOUR METHOD:
1. Total area stripped
2. Topsoil stripped
3. Topsoil replaced
4. Subsoil removed
5. Subsoil replaced
6. Total area and volume of hardscape
7. Total area of softscape
The step by step process for using the contour method is
outlined below.
 STEP 1- Delineate the no cut /no fill zone throughout the entire project and
calculate the gross area in cut and the gross area in fill.
 STEP 2- Measure the total surface area of each contour in cut or each
contour in fill separately and enter this area on the appropriate line next to
the contour number.
 STEP 3-Determine the depth of topsoil to be stripped and calculate the
cubic volume separately for cut and fill using the gross areas entered.
 STEP4- Measure the proposed hardscape in the cut zone and the fill zone.
 STEP5-Calculate the volumes for hardscape in the cut and the fill zones
and enter these volumes.
 STEP6-To determine the total non paved area to receive topsoil for
planting, subtract total hardscape area from the total no cut/ no fill zone
area of hardscape in the cut zone from the total area in the cut zone ,then
subtracting the area of hardscape in the fill zone from the total area in the
fill zone
 STEP7-Determine the thickness to which the topsoil is to be replaced and
calculate separately the required volumes for the cut and the fill areas
respectively found in step 6.
 STEP8-Calculate the gross cut and gross fill volume separately b using the
formula
i(5A1/6 + A2 +A3 +A4 ……..5An/6)
Where A=area of contour planes measured between original and finished
contours.
i= contour interval (vertical distance between contours)
DRAINAGE

 Contour grading and drainage prevents soil erosion and stops water from
accumulating in undesirable places and keeps roads and sidewalks safe in wet
conditions.

 The two types of drainage systems are : a) Surface Drainage

b) Subsurface Drainage.

 Surface drainage is usually preferable to installing pipes for absorbed into the
ground and underground drain pipes can clog. Grading is a major factor in the
success drainage, which is usually accomplished by creating slopes and grassy
swales.

 Subsurface Drainage involves installing a perforated pipe buried underground in a

bed of gravel. The pipe is sometimes covered with fabric to filter out fine
sediment.

 On grading plans, existing elevators are shown as dashed lines and solid lines are
proposed in elevations.
 Landforms Grading replicates the irregular shapes of the natural slopes. Resulting in
aesthetically pleasing elevations and profiles. Landforms- graded slopes are
characterized by continuous series of concave and convex forms interspersed with
mounds that blend into the profiles.
 Linearity and varying slope gradients are significant transition zones between man-
made and natural slopes. Resultant pad configuration are irregular.
 The down drain devices either follow “natural” lines of the slopes or are tucked away in
special form and combinations to conceal the drains from view. Exposed segments in
high visibility area are with natural rock
 Guidelines set forth approaches to providing drainage for new development that
will,where possible ,maintain the natural drainage pattern of a site,avoid diversion
of water flows from existing drainage courses and minimize runoff impacts on
adjacent and or downstream areas .

 Master drainage plan should be prepared that recognizes existing drainage and wash
patterns ,discharge locations and storm water flows , clearly delineates any changes
to the natural flow of water in,through and around the site

 Planning and design of the site should recognize any floodplains and other major
ways and provide mitigation to avoid or control flooding

 Natural drainage area is should be incorporated into all new developments as an

environmental amenity that can enhance the open space quality and character of the
community

 The least structural approach in providing new drainage way improvements should be
used to avoid the use of concrete or other hard edge construction techniques for
drainage channels
 Hard surfaces such as wide streets and large paved parking lots in new
developments should be reduced in order to increase ground percolation
,groundwater recharge and decrease water runoff

 All sites should be properly graded to prevent sheeting,ponding and sedimentation at

building entryways and on walkways ,bicycle paths and streets

 Positive drainage should be provided by ensuring that finish grades enable water to
flow from all buildings and structures

 The tops and side slopes of all drainage ways should be stabilized with
environmentally sensitive channel and bank stabilization techniques and landscape
with trees ,shrubs, and ground cover,where appropriate pedestrian and bicycle paths
and equestrian trails should be provided that connect to adjacent open space and
trail systems.
Following approaches to grading , slope gradients and grading operations
should be utilized.

 Contour slopes when space permits

 where retaining walls are necessary, incorporate them into other design features
on the site such as stairs , ramps, and planters

 Coordinate all grading plans with site drainage

 AVOID SITE GRADING WHICH NECESSITATES BLASTING

 Design slopes to facilitate surface drainage ,limit soil erosion and avoid land
slides and soil instability

 Avoid use of steep slope gradients in areas where there are geologically unstable
conditions, sight lines to be preserved and landscape required for slope
stabilization
 Ensure that slope gradients for such hard space open space areas as plazas that are
proposed for a site are minimized to accommodate ease of pedestrian movement

 Avoid soil and debris spillover and trampling of vegetation in areas adjacent to the
project site when implementing grading operations

 For sites where large areas to be graded grading operations should avoid clearing the
ground far in advance of site grading to limit erosion

 Strip and stockpile top soil for reuse ,prior to grading the site.

 Provide dust control measures during grading

 Include mitigation measures of any hazardous materials found existing on the site
during grading operations.

 Undertake any required mitigation measures of archaeological sites as part of project

grading operations