Jet Aerodynamics

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 Jet Aerodynamics

Definitions
Lift, Drag and the Lift-to-Drag Ratio
Stall and the Aerodynamic Ceiling
Thrust and the Propulsive Ceiling

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 Jet Aerodynamics

Definitions

Airfoil: The cross-section of the wing parallel to the fuselage.

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 Jet Aerodynamics

Definitions

Leading Edge Trailing Edge

Angle of Attack
Chord Line
Camber

Air Flow

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 Jet Aerodynamics

Definitions
Boundary Layer


Boundary Layer:
A thin later of air flow directly in contact with the skin of the wing (a
few millimeters to a few centimeters thick).
The thicker and more turbulent the boundary layer, the greater the drag;
if the boundary layer separates from the skin, the lift will suddenly drop
off
 Therefore, the skin of the aircraft must be smooth and clean.

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 Jet Aerodynamics

Lift, Drag and the L/D Ratio

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 Jet Aerodynamics

Lift, Drag and the L/D Ratio

Lift

Drag

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 Jet Aerodynamics

Lift, Drag and the L/D Ratio

1
L = r 2
S V CL
2
Lift

Lift Coefficient
Area of the Wing
Air Density Speed
Drag Coefficient
1
D = r S V2 CD
2
Drag

For a certain airfoil, the lift coefficient and the drag coefficient varies
with the angle of attack only.

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 Jet Aerodynamics

Lift, Drag and the L/D Ratio

When the angle of attack is increased, the lift coefficient initially increases linearly.

But when the angle of attack has

reached a certain value (max), the air Lift Coefficient
flow starts to separate from the airfoil.
The lift coefficient reaches a final CLmax
maximum CLmax. If the angle of attack
is increased beyond max, it will cause
stall of the wing.

Angle Of Attack
max
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 Jet Aerodynamics

Lift, Drag and the L/D Ratio

At low airspeeds, the lift could be increased by extracting the flaps and slats.

Wing Area S
Camber of the Wing
 Lift Coefficient CL
At low airspeeds, the more the camber of the airfoil, the more the lift coefficient.

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 Jet Aerodynamics

Lift, Drag and the L/D Rati

Lift-to-Drag Ratio: The ratio of lift over drag.

L / D = CL / CD CL

The speed corresponds to the

maximum Lift-to-Drag Ratio Highest
Lift-to-Drag Ratio
is called the Green Dot Speed. 
 CD

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 Jet Aerodynamics

Stall and the Aerodynamic Ceiling

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 Jet Aerodynamics

Stall and the Aerodynamic Ceilin

There are two types of stall

Low speed

High speed stall

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 Jet Aerodynamics

ll and the Aerodynamic Ceiling

1
L = r 2
S V CL
2
Lift
Low speed stall

If it is required to decelerate in level flight (lift must be fixed),

the lift coefficient should be increased, i.e. the angle of attack should be increased.
But this may cause the stall of the wing. Thus there is a minimum speed to avoid it.

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 Jet Aerodynamics

Stall and the Aerodynamic Ceiling

1
L = r S V2 CL
2
Low speed stall Lift

FL

As the flight level increases, the air density decreases.

So the minimum speed to avoid stall is increased
accordingly.

Low speed stall limitation Speed

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 Jet Aerodynamics

Stall and the Aerodynamic Ceiling

High speed stall

Speed reaches Mach 1
Shock Wave

Speed
approaching
Mach 1

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 Jet Aerodynamics

Stall and the Aerodynamic Ceiling

High speed stall

As the flight level increases, the speed of sound decreases. So the maximum
speed to avoid high speed stall is decreased accordingly.

FL

Aerodynamic
Ceiling

High speed stall limitation

Low speed stall limitation Speed

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 Jet Aerodynamics

Stall and the Aerodynamic Ceiling

Caution: At low altitudes, before reaching the “high speed

stall” limitation, a structural limitation of airspeed is reached.

Maximum Operating Speed / Mach (VMO / MMO):

Maximum speed / Mach due to structural limits.

A320， For A320,

VMO / MMO = 350 kt / M 0.82
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 Jet Aerodynamics
Stall and the Aerodynamic Ceil

ALTITUDE (  100 ft)

)

290
WEIGHT (t)
330

Usable
UsableMach
Machrange
range BANK ANGLE ()

MACH NUMBER
CG POSITION LOAD FACTOR
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 Jet Aerodynamics

Stall and the Aerodynamic Ceiling

FL340 FL387
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 Jet Aerodynamics

Stall and the Aerodynamic Ceiling

 Buffet
Severe vibration caused by airflow separation.

Load factor n = L/W In level flight, the load factor equals to one.
But when the aircraft banks or encounters a gust,
the load factor will increase.

L=W L>W

W n=1 n>1 W
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 Jet Aerodynamics

Stall and the Aerodynamic Ceiling



Load Factor n Lift L Lift Coefficient

CL AOA 

Max Limit Max Limit

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 Jet Aerodynamics
Stall and the Aerodynamic Ceili

70
ALTITUDE (  100 ft)

Usable
Mach
range
WEIGHT
330

Usable Mach range BANK ANGLE ()

35 1 1.5
MACH NUMBER CG POSITION LOAD FACTOR
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 Jet Aerodynamics

Stall and the Aerodynamic Ceiling

No bank With bank

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 Jet Aerodynamics

Thrust and the Propulsive Ceiling

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 Jet Aerodynamics

Thrust and the Propulsive Ceiling

Lift

Thrust Drag

Weight

In a steady level flight

Lift = Weight
Thrust = Drag

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 Jet Aerodynamics

Thrust and the Propulsive Ceiling

The Available Thrust and the Required Thrust

Available Thrust: The thrust that can be given by the engines.

Available Thrust

As altitude increases
10000 ft

30000 ft

Airspeed

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 Jet Aerodynamics

Thrust and the Propulsive Ceiling

Required Thrust: The thrust needed to overcome the drag.

Weight
Required Thrust = Drag x Required Thrust
Lift
Weight
 increasing
=
Lift-to-Drag Ratio
Airspeed
The higher the lift-to-drag ratio,
the less the required thrust.

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 Jet Aerodynamics

Thrust and the Propulsive Ceiling

The available thrust is higher than the

Thrust required thrust. So there is enough thrust to Required Thrust
maintain the actual airspeed and flight level.

Available Thrust

Usable speed envelope (check VMO limit) Airspeed

Minimum Maximum

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 Jet Aerodynamics

Thrust and the Propulsive Ceiling

In this range of airspeed, the required thrust

increases as airspeed decreases due to the great
Thrust increase in drag. Therefore the available thrust Required Thrust
may be insufficient to avoid a stall speed without
descending, especially at high altitudes.

Available Thrust

OK Airspeed

Green Dot Speed

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 Jet Aerodynamics

Thrust and the Propulsive Ceiling

Green Dot speed can maximize angle of climb

Green Dot speed can minimize the angle of descent.
Thrust Green Dot speed can minimize theRequired Thrust
fuel consumption.
Green Dot speed is the holding speed.

The difference between the available Green Dot speed is the minimum level flight speed in
thrust and the required thrust is the most. clean configuration.

Available Thrust

Airspeed

Green Dot Speed Highest Lift-to-Drag Ratio

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Thrust and the Propulsive Ceiling

Thrust Required Thrust

The available thrust decreases

as the altitude increases. The flight level corresponding to
this available thrust is called the

Propulsive Ceiling

Available Thrust

Airspeed

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 Jet Aerodynamics

Thrust and the Propulsive Ceiling

Thrust Required Thrust

The available thrust decreases The flight level corresponding

as the altitude increases. to this available thrust is the

Available Thrust Maximum altitude

for a given speed

Airspeed

Maximum Given airspeed

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 Jet Aerodynamics

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