RADAR

WHO INVENTED RADAR?

• Although many scientists contributed to the development of radar, best known
among them was a Scottish physicist named Robert Watson-Watt (1892–1973).
During World War I, Watson-Watt went to work for Britain's Meteorological
Office (the country's main weather forecasting organization) to help them use
radio waves to detect approaching storms. 
• In the run up to World War II, Watson-Watt and his assistant Arnold Wilkins
realized they could use the technology they were developing to detect
approaching enemy aircraft. Once they'd proved the basic equipment could
work, they constructed an elaborate network of ground-based radar detectors
around the south and east of the British coastline. During the war, Britain's radar
defenses (known as Chain Home) gave it a huge advantage over the German air
force and played an important part in the ultimate allied victory. A similar
system was developed at the same time in the United States and even managed
to detect the approach of Japanese airplanes over Pearl Harbor, in Hawaii, in
December 1994—though no-one figured out the significance of so many
approaching planes until it was too late.
 WHAT IS RADAR?
• “Radio Detection and Ranging”
• A detection system that uses radio waves to determine the range, angle, or
velocity of objects.
• It can be used detect aircraft, ships, spacecraft, guided missiles, motor vehicles, 
weather formations, and terrain.
• The marine radar is equipment that is perhaps used the most on the ship’s bridge
by the OOW in carrying out a safe navigational watch. A mandatory aid to
navigation, the radar is used in identifying, tracking (with integrated ARPA) and
positioning of vessels (including one’s own vessel) among other things in order
to adhere to the COLREGs so as to safely navigate a ship from one point to
another. The marine radar is classified under the x-band (10 GHz) or S-
band (3GHz) frequencies. The x-band, being of higher frequency is used for a
sharper image and better resolution whereas the S-band is used especially when
in rain or fog as well as for identification and tracking.
HOW DOES THE RADAR WORKS?
1. Magnetron generates high-frequency radio waves.
2. Duplexer switches magnetron through to antenna.
3. Antenna acts as transmitter, sending narrow beam of radio waves through the air.
4. Radio waves hit enemy ship and reflect back.
5. Antenna picks up reflected waves during a break between transmissions. Note that
the same antenna acts as both transmitter and receiver, alternately sending out
radio waves and receiving them.
6. Duplexer switches antenna through to receiver unit.
7. Computer in receiver unit processes reflected waves and draws them on a TV screen.
8. Enemy ship shows up on TV radar display with any other nearby targets.
USES/PURPOSE OF HAVING RADAR ON BOARD SHIP:

1. To calculate range and bearing of a target and thereafter use the information
to determine speed, course etc.
2. Integration with other shipboard equipment (such as ECDIS) to derive precise
data
3. Navigating own vessel and her course with regard to collision avoidance
4. Fixing the ship’s position using terrestrial objects such as lighthouses, buoys
etc.
5. Differentiating between targets in high traffic density areas
6. Determination of the weather, to an extent
7. Use by VTS in controlling coastal traffic
8. Usage of features such as parallel indexing to ensure safe navigation
9. Alleviating workload on the OOW on the bridge
10. Used extensively in pilotage that covers the above aspects
OPERATION OF THE MARINE
• The parabolic radar antenna transmits and receives electromagnetic waves; as

RADARS
far as a target being displayed is concerned, that is basically the wave that

bounced off a certain object that paints itself on the PPI (Plan Position Indicator)

• The frequency and the time taken by the flashes to return (reflections) to the

radar receiver of the ship helps to find out whether the route of the boat can be

continued with or not. The transmission and receiving of the pulse travels twice

the distance in going and hitting the target and back; therefore, the target

displayed on the PPI is basically halved with regard to its range

• On the PPI, the reflections can be seen so that identifying the actual distance of

the objects can be even easier. The same paint on the PPI can be also be checked

for determination of the bearing of the target

TYPES OF RADAR
BISTATIC RADAR
• Bistatic radar is a radar system that comprises of a transmitter and a receiver
that are separated by a distance that is equal to the distance of the expected
target. A radar in which the transmitter and the receiver are located at the same
place is known as a monastic radar. Most long range surface-to-air and air-to-air
missiles employ the use of bistatic radar.
CONTINUOUS WAVE RADAR
• A continuous wave radar is a type of radar where a known stable frequency
continuous wave radio energy is transmitted and then received from any of the
objects that reflect the waves. A continuous wave radar uses Doppler technology
which means the radar will be immune to any form of interference by large
objects that are stationary or slow moving.
 DOPPLER RADAR
• A Doppler radar is a special form of radar that employs the use of Doppler Effect
to produce velocity data about an object at a given distance. This is achieved by
sending electromagnetic signals towards a target and then analyzing how the
object motion has affected the frequency of the returned signal. This variation has
the capacity to give extremely accurate measurements of the radial component of
a target’s velocity in relation to the radar. Doppler radars have applications in
different industries including aviation, meteorology, healthcare and many others.
MONOPULSE RADAR
• A monopulse radar is a radar system that compares the received signal from a
single radar pulse against itself with an aim of comparing the signal as seen in
multiple polarizations or directions. The most common form of monopulse radar
is the adaptation of conical scanning radar which compares the return from two
directions to directly measure the location of the target. It is important to note
that most of the radars that were designed since the 1960s are monopulse radars.
PASSIVE RADAR

• A passive radar system is a type of radar that is designed to detect and track
objects by processing reflections from non-cooperative sources of illumination in
the environment. These sources include such things as communications signals
and commercial broadcasts. Passive radar can be categorized in the same class
of radar as bistatic radar.
INSTRUMENTATION RADAR
• Instrumentation radars are radars that are designed to test rockets, missiles,
aircrafts and ammunitions on government and private test ranges. They provide
a variety of information including space, position, and time both in the real time
and in the post processing analysis.
WEATHER RADARS
• Weather radars are radar systems that are used for weather sensing and
detection. This radar uses radio waves along with horizontal or circular
polarization. The frequency selection of weather radar depends on a
performance compromise between precipitation refection and attenuation as a
result of atmospheric water vapor. Some weather radars are designed to use
Doppler shifts to measure the speed of wind and dual polarization to identify
precipitation types.
MAPPING RADAR
• Mapping radars are used to scan a large geographical region for geography
and remote sensing applications. Because of their use of synthetic aperture
radar, they are limited to relatively static objects. There are some specific radar
systems that can sense humans behind walls thanks to the reflective
characteristics of humans that are more diverse than the ones found in
construction materials.
NAVIGATIONAL RADARS
• Navigational radars are generally the same as search radars. However, they
come with much shorter wavelengths that are capable of reflecting from the
earth and from stones. They are mostly common on commercial ships and other
long distance commercial aircrafts. There are various navigational radars that
include marine radars commonly mounted on ships for collision avoidance and
navigational purposes.
RULES OF ROAD
SAILING VESSELS
Two sailing vessels approaching one another must give-way as follows:

• Port gives way to starboard. When each has the wind on a different side, the
vessel which has the wind to port must give way;
• Windward gives way to leeward. When both have the wind on the same side,
the vessel which is windward must give way to the vessel which is leeward;
• Unsure port gives way. If a vessel, with the wind on the port side, sees a vessel
to windward and cannot determine whether the other vessel has the wind on
the port or the starboard side, they must give way.
• For the purposes of this rule, the wind is considered to be coming from the side
opposite the mainsail boom, or if the vessel is square rigged, opposite the largest
fore-and-aft rigged sail, regardless of which side the true or apparent wind is on.
OVERTAKING
• Notwithstanding anything contained in the Rules ... ... an overtaking vessel must
keep out of the way of the vessel being overtaken. "Overtaking" means
approaching another vessel at more than 22.5 degrees abaft her beam, i.e., so
that at night, the overtaking vessel would see only the stern light and neither of
the sidelights of the vessel being overtaken. Note that the opening words of this
rule make clear that this rule overrides all other rules.
HEAD-ON SITUATIONS
• When two power-driven vessels are meeting head-on both must alter course to
starboard so that they pass on the port side of the other. "Head-on" means
seeing the other vessel ahead or nearly ahead so that by night her masthead
lights are actually or nearly lined up and/or seeing both her sidelights, or by day
seeing a similar aspect of her. “ If you see three lights ahead, starboard wheel
and show your red."
CROSSING SITUATIONS
• When two power-driven vessels are crossing, the vessel which has the other on
the starboard side must give way and avoid crossing ahead of her. The saying is
"If to starboard red appear, 'tis your duty to keep clear. Act as judgement says is
proper: port or starboard, back or stop her."
THE GIVE-WAY VESSEL
• The give-way vessel must take early and substantial action to keep well clear.
Every pleasure boat operator who must give-way to another vessel, that means
the operator who has to move, must take "early and substantial action to avoid
a collision." The stand-on vessel must "maintain course and speed."
THE STAND-ON VESSEL
• The stand-on vessel shall maintain her course and speed, but she may take
action to avoid collision if it becomes clear that the give-way vessel is not taking
appropriate action, or when so close that collision can no longer be avoided by
the actions of the give-way vessel alone. In a crossing situation, the stand-on
vessel should avoid turning to port even if the give-way vessel is not taking
appropriate action. These options for the stand-on vessel do not relieve the give-
way vessel of her obligations under the rules
RESPONSIBILITIES BETWEEN
VESSELS
• A power-driven vessel must give way to:
– a vessel not under command;
– a vessel restricted in her ability to maneuver (this may include vessels towing
one another);
– a vessel engaged in fishing;
– a sailing vessel.
• A sailing vessel must give way to:
– a vessel not under command;
– a vessel restricted in her ability to maneuver;
– a vessel engaged in fishing.
• A vessel engaged in fishing when underway shall, so far as possible, keep out of
the way of:

– a vessel not under command;

– a vessel restricted in her ability to maneuver.

• Any vessel other than a vessel not under command or a vessel restricted in her
ability to maneuver shall, if possible, not impede the safe passage of a vessel
constrained by her draft, exhibiting the signals in Rule 28.

• A vessel constrained by her draft shall navigate with particular caution having
full regard to her special condition.