Mobile Computing

Course Name:
Mobile
Computing
Branch-
BCA-V Semester
Course Code:
13012700

Faculty Name:
Zaiba Khan

Assistant Professor(CSE)
School of
Engineering &
Technology
 What is Mobile Computing?

• What is Computing?
Operation of computers

• What is Mobile?
That someone/something can move or be moved
easily and quickly from place to place

• What is Mobile Computing?

Users with portable computers still have network
connections while they move.
 Definition?

• A simple definition is…….

Mobile Computing is using a computer (of one kind over
another ) while on the move
OR

• Second definition could be

Mobile Computing is when a (work) process is moved from a
normal fixed position to a more dynamic position.

OR

• Third definition could be

Mobile Computing is when a work process is carried out
somewhere it was not previously possible.
 Why to go for Mobile ???

• Enable anywhere/ anytime connectivity

• Bring computer communications to areas
without pre-existing infrastructure
• Enable mobility
• Enable new applications
• An exciting new search area
 Application Scenarios
• Vehicles
• Nomadic User What is
• Smart Phones important?

• Home or Office
• Meeting Room/Conference
• Taxi/Police/Fire Squad
• Service Worker
• Disaster Relief & Disaster Alarm
• Games
• Military/ Security
Vehicles
 Types of Wireless Devices

• Laptops
• Palmtops
• PDAs
• Cell Phones
• Pagers
• Sensors…..etc
 Why Wireless?

• Freedom from wires

– No cost of installing the wires , No bunches of wires
running around e.g. Bluetooth, Wi-Fi
• Global Coverage
– Where wires communication is not feasible or costly
e.g.rurual areas, battle field and outer space.
• Stay Connected
– Anywhere—Anytime
• Flexibility
– Connect to multiple devices simultaneously
 Wireless History
• Ancient System: Smoke Signals, Carrier Pigeons…
• Using Light and flags for wireless communication
remained important for the navy until radio
transmission was introduced.
– Even today a sailor has to know some codes
repesented by flags if all other wireless fails.
• James C Maxwell(1831-1879) laying the
theoretical foundation for EM fields with his
famous equations.
• Heinrich Hertz (1857-1894) was the first to
demonstrate the wave character of electrical
transmission through space.
 Wireless History (Cont….)

• Radio Invented in the 1880s by Marconi

• The first transatlantic transmission followed in 1901
• In 1951, the first wireless voice transmission was set up
between New York and San Francisco
• Communication Satellites launched in 1960s
• Advances in wireless technology
– Radio, Television, Mobile Telephone , Communication
Satellites
• More recently
– Satellite communication, wireless communications, cellular
technology
 Signals

• Signals are the physical representation

of data.
• In the communication system, Data is
exchanged through signals.
• Physical Layer of ISO/OSI reference
model converts the data(bits), into
signals and vice-versa,
• In a wireless channel , signals are
transmitted via electromagnetic
radiations which are analog in nature.
 Antenna

• What is Antenna ?
– An antenna is an electrical device which
converts electric energy into radio waves,
and vice versa.
– It is usually used with a radio transmitter
or radio receiver.
– An antenna is a device for sending or
receiving electromagnetic waves.
 Transmitter Antenna

– A device that converts sound, light, or

electrical signals into radio, microwave or
other electrical signals.
 Signal Propagation
• In wireless networks, the signal has no wire
to determine the direction of propagation
• Transmission Range
– Within a certain radius of the sender transmission is possible i.e.
receiver receives the signals with low error rate.(Able to act as sender &
communicate)

• Detection Range
– Detection of the signal possible i.e. the transmitted power is large enough to
differ from Background noise.
– Error rate is high
– Due to that No communication possible
– Interference Range
– The sender may interfere with other transmission
by adding background noise.(Receiver will not able to detect signals but the
signals may disturb other signals.
 Path Loss Of Radio Signals

• Radio Signals Propagate as light (which

follow in straight line)
• Straight line between sender & receiver is
known as Line-of-sight
• Even if no matter exists between sender &
receiver (still it experience free space loss)
• Additional Parameters:
– Received Power also depends on the
wavelength and the gain of receiver &
transmitter antennas.
 Fading
• Fading ( or Fading channels) refers to mathematical
models for the distortion that a carrier-modulated
telecommunication signal experiences over certain
propagation media.
• “Short Term” Fading also known as Multipath Induced
Fading
– Why does it occur?
• It results from the superposition of transmitted signals that
have experienced differences in
– Attenuation
– Delay &
– Phase Shift
While travelling from source to the destination.
• The most common types of Fading:
– “ Slow Fading”
– “ Fast Fading”
• They apply to mobile radio environment
• Small Scale Fading – The rapid fluctuations of the
“amplitude” , “phases” or “multipath delays of the radio
signals” over a short period of time or travel distance , so that
large scale path loss effects may be ignored.

• Fading is caused by interference between two or more

versions of the transmitted signal which arrive at the receiver
at slightly different times.

• These waves , called multipath waves, combine at the

receiving antenna to give a resultant signal
• Which can vary widely in amplitude and phase
 For Example:
• Consider the common example of stopping at
traffic light and hearing a lot of static on your FM
broadcast radio, which is immediately corrected if
we move less than a meter.

• Cellular Phone similarly exhibit same momentary

fades.

• The reason is
– The destructive interface that multiple reflected copies of
signals make with itself.
 Fading In Wireless Communication
• In wireless communication , signal fading is caused
by multi-path effect.
– Multi-Path Means – A signal transmitted from a
transmitter may have multiple copies traversing different
paths to reach a receiver.

– At the receiver, the received signal should be the sum of

all these multi-path signals.

• Because the path traversed by the signals are different some

are longer & some are shorter.

 The one at the direction of light of signal(LOS) should be shortest.

 If the signals are in phase, they would intensify the resultant signal,
Otherwise the resultant signal is weakened due to out of phase. This
phenomenon is called “channel fading”
 Small Scale Multipath Propagation
• Multipath in the radio channel creates small scale
fading effects. The three most important effects are:
– Rapid Changes in Signal Strength
– Random Frequency Distribution
– Time dispersion (Echoes) caused by multipath propagation
delays.
 Factors Influencing Small Sale Fading:
 A) Multi-Path Propagation:
 Due to propagation effects, one of the most severe radio channel
impairments called multi-path propagation.
 Radio waves emitted by the sender can either travel along straight
line or they may be reflected to a large building or scattered at
smaller obstacles.
 Due to finite speed of light , signals travels along different paths with
different lengths arrive at receiver at different times. This effect is
called “Delay Spread”
 It often length the time required for the base band portion of the
signal to reach to the receiver which can cause signal smearing due
to inter symbol interference.
 Explanation
• On the sender side both impulses are separated.
• At the receiver, both impulses interfere i.e. they overlap
in time.
• Now consider each impulse should represent a symbol.
• That one or several symbols represent as a bit.
• Now the energy intended for one symbol now spills over
to the adjacent symbol
• An effect which is called Intersymbol interference(ISI)
 Explanation(Cont…)
• The higher the symbol rate to be transmitted ,
WORSE the effect of ISI
– Because the original symbol are moved closer & closer to
each other.

• ISI limits the bandwidth of a radio channel with

multi-path propagation.

• Due to this interference , the signals of different

symbols can cancel each other leading to
misinterpretations at the receiver and causing
transmission errors.
 Explanation(Cont…)
• While ISI & Delay Spread occur in the case of fixed
radio transmitters and receivers , the situation is
even worse if receivers, or senders, or both, move.

• Then the channel characteristics change over time,

& the path signal can travel along vary.
• The quick changes in the received power are also
called Short-Term Fading.
 Multiplexing
• It is a technique by which different analog and
digital streams of transmission can be
simultaneously processed over a shared link.

• Multiplexing divides the high capacity medium into

low capacity medium which is then shared by
different streams.

• Communication is possible over (Radio

Frequency) ---Using Physical Medium(Cable) &
Light(Optical Fibre)

• All mediums are capable of multiplexing.

 Multiplexing(Cont…)
• When multiple senders try to send over a single
medium , a device called Multiplexer.
– Multiplexer divides the physical channel & allocates one to
each.
– On the other hand, a De-multiplexer receives data from a
single medium , identifies each and sends to different
receivers.
 Frequency Division Multiplexing(FDM)
• FDM is an analog technology.
• FDM divides the spectrum or carrier bandwidth in logical channels &
allocates one user to each channel.
• Each user can use the channel frequency independently and has exclusive
access of it.
• All channels are divided in such a way that they do not overlap with each
other.
• Channels are separated by guard bands.
• Guard band is a frequency which is not used by either channel.
 Time Division Multiplexing(TDM)
• It is primarily on digital signals
– But can be used on analog signals as well.

• It shared channel is divided among its user by means of time

slot.

• Each user can transmit data within the provided time slot
only.

• Digital frames are divided in frames, equivalent to time slot.

• Frame of an optimal size which can be transmitted in given

time slot.
 Time Division Multiplexing(TDM)-Cont….

• TDM works in synchronized mode.

• Both ends, i.e. Multiplexer & De-Multiplexer
are timely synchronized and both switch to
next channel simultaneously.
Time Division Multiplexing(TDM)-Cont…
• Explanation—
– When channel A transmits its frame at
one, the De-multiplexer provides media to
channel A on the other end.
– As soon as the channel A’s time slot
expires, this side switches to channel B.
– On the other end , the de-multiplexer
works in a synchronized manner and
provides media to channel B.
– Signals from different channels travel the
path in interleaved manner.
 Wavelength Division Multiplexing(WDM)
• Light have different wavelength colors.
• In fiber optic mode, multiple optical carrier signals are
multiplexed into an optical fiber by using different
wavelength.
• This is an analog multiplexing technique and is done
conceptually in the same manner as FDM but uses light as
signals.
• Further, on each wavelength time division multiplexing can
be incorporated to accommodate more data signals.
 Code Division Multiplexing(CDM)
• Multiple data signals can be transmitted over a single
frequency by using CDM.
• FDM divides the frequency in smaller channels
• But CDM allows users to full bandwidth and transmit signals
all the time using a unique code.
• Each signal is assigned with a unique code , called chip.
Signals travel with these codes independently , inside the
whole bandwidth.
• The receiver knows in advance the chip code signal it has
received.
 Space Division Multiplexing(SDM)
• Space division multiple access or spatial division multiple
access is a technique which is MIMO(multiple input-multiple
output) architecture and used mostly in wireless and satellite
communication. It has following features:
– All users can communicate at the same time using
same channel.
– SDMA is completely free from interference.
– A single satellite can communicate with more satellite
receivers of the same frequency.
– The directional spot-beam antennas are used and
hence the base station in SDMA, can track a moving
user.
– Controls the radiated energy for each user in space.
Modulation(Introduction)
 Modulation
• A message signal cannot travel a long distance because of its
low signal strength.
• In addition to this, physical surroundings, the addition of
external noise and travel distance will further reduce the
signal strength of a message signal.
• So in order to send the message signal to a long distance, we
need to increase the signal strength of a message signal.
• This can be achieved by using a high frequency or high
energy signal called carrier signal.
• A high energy signal can travel to a larger distance without
getting affected by external disturbances.
• We take the help of such high energy signal to transmit the
message signal. This high energy or high frequency signal is
known as carrier signal.
• The low energy message signal is mixed with the high energy
or high frequency carrier signal to produce a new high energy
signal which carries information to a larger distance.
• The question arises how the message signal should be added
to the carrier signal. The solution lies in changing some
 Modulation(Cont..)
• The Message signal contains information whereas the
carrier signal contains no information.
• Carrier signal is used just to transmit the information to a
long distance.
• At the destination, the message signal is consumed
whereas the carrier signal is wasted.
• In modulation process, the characteristics of the carrier
signal is changed but the message signal characteristics
will not be changed.
• The carrier signal does not contain any information so
even if we change the characteristics of the carrier
signal, the information contained in it will not be
changed.
• However, the message signal contains information so if
we change the characteristics of the message signal, the
information contained in it will also changes.
 Modulation Definition
• Modulation is the process of mixing a
low energy message signal with the
high energy carrier signal to produce a
new high energy signal which carries
information to a long distance.
or
• Modulation is the process of changing
the characteristics (amplitude,
frequency or phase) of the carrier
signal, in accordance with the amplitude
of the message signal.
Example
• Example:
• The modulation process
can be understood with a
simple example. The below
figure shows the amplitude
modulation.
• The first figure shows the
modulating signal or
message signal which
contains information, the
second figure shows the
high frequency carrier
signal which contains no
information and the last
figure shows the resultant
amplitude modulated signal.
• From the above three
figures, it can be observed
Types of Signals in Modulation
• In modulation process, three types of signals are used to transmit
information from source to destination. They are:
• 1) Message signal
• 2) Carrier signal
• 3) Modulated signal
1) Message signal
• The signal which contains a message to be transmitted to the
destination is called a message signal. The message signal is
also known as a modulating signal or baseband signal.
• The original frequency range of a transmission signal is called
baseband signal. The message signal or baseband signal
undergoes a process called modulation before it gets transmitted
over the communication channel. Hence, the message signal is
also known as the modulating signal.
2) Carrier signal
• The high energy or high frequency signal which has
characteristics like amplitude, frequency, and phase but contains
no information is called a carrier signal. It is also simply referred
to as a carrier. Carrier signal is used to carry the message signal
from transmitter to receiver. The carrier signal is also sometimes
referred to as an empty signal.
Need for Modulation
Modulation is extremely necessary in
communication system because of the
following reasons:
1) Avoids mixing of signals
2) Increase the range of communication
3) Wireless communication
4) Reduces the effect of noise
5) Reduces height of antenna
 De-Modulation
• Demodulation is the opposite process of
modulation.
• Modulator is a part of signal transmitter where as
demodulator is the receiving side.
• In broadcast system radio transmitting station
does to modulation part.
• A radio receiver acts as a demodulator.
• A modem receives signals and also transmits
signals thus it does modulation and
demodulation at the same time. Thus the name
modem has been given. A radio antenna
receives low power signal.
– A co-axial cable end point can also taken as an signal
Categories of Modulation
 Categories of Modulation
• In either type of modulation (Analog or
Digital) , carrier is of Analog Format.
– Why not digital carrier?
• The only difference between both
categories is type of information
(modulating) signal .
– i.e. analog modulation= analog information
signal
– digital modulation= digital information signal
• Also, in modulated wave, the resultant
change is in the respective characteristics
 Types of Modulation
• Analog Modulation
– If the variation in the parameter of the carrier is
continuous in accordance to the input analog
signal the modulation technique is termed as
analog modulation scheme. It is classified as
• Amplitude Modulation
• Frequency Modulation
• Phase Modulation
• Digital Modulation
– If the variation in the parameter of the carrier is
discrete then it is termed as digital modulation
technique. It is classified as :
• Amplitude Shift Keying
• Frequency Shift Keying
• Phase Shift Keying
 Type of Modulation
• Digital Modulation:
Analog modulation refers to the process of
transferring digital low frequency baseband
signal, like digital bit stream from computers
over a higher frequency carrier signal such as
a radio frequency band. Digital modulation in
somewhat similar to the analog modulation
except base band signal is of discrete
amplitude level. For binary signal it has only
two level, either high or logic 1 or low or logic
0. The modulation scheme is mainly three
types.
– Basically ,there are types of digital modulation
 Amplitude Shift Keying(ASK)
• It is a digital to analog conversion technique.
• The two binary bits “1” & “0” represents by two
different amplitudes.
• As shown in image, one of the amplitude is 0 and this
simple scheme only requires low bandwidth.
• As the information is an on-off signal the output is also
an on-off signal where the carrier is present when
information is 1 and carrier is absent when information
is 0. Thus this modulation scheme is known as on-off
keying (OOK) or amplitude shift key.

• Effects like multipath propagation noise or path loss

heavily influence the amplitude.

• In wireless environment, a constant amplitude can’t be

guaranteed .So ASK is typically not used for wireless
communication.
 Amplitude Shift Keying

Application:
Used in our infrared remote controls
Used in fibre optical tranmitter and
receiver.
 Frequency Shift Key(FSK)
• This is often used for wireless transmission.
• The simplest form of FSK is Binary FSK.
• The frequency of the output signal will be
either high or low, depending upon the input
data applied.
• Frequency Shift Keying (FSK) is the digital
modulation technique in which the frequency
of the carrier signal varies according to the
discrete digital changes.
• FSK is a scheme of frequency modulation.
• FSK needs a larger bandwidth compared to
ASK but is much less susceptible to errors.
Frequency Shift Keying

Application:
Many modem used FSK in telemetry
systems.
 Phase Shift Key(PSK)
• Phase Shift Keying (PSK) is the digital
modulation technique in which the phase
of the carrier signal is changed by varying
the sine and cosine inputs at a particular
time. PSK technique is widely used for
wireless LANs, bio-metric, contactless
operations, along with RFID and Bluetooth
communications.
• To receive the signal correctly, the receiver
must synchronize , in frequency and
phase with the transmitter .This can be
done using a phase lock loop(PLL).
 PM Advantage
Modulation and demodulation does not catch any channel
noise.
PM Disadvantage:
Circuit needed for PM modulation and demodulation is bit
complicated than AM and FM
Application:
1) Satellite communication.
 Advanced Frequency Shift Key
• Bandwidth needed for FSK depends on the
distance between the carrier frequiences
• Special pre-computation avoids sudden phase
shift
– MSK(Minimum Shift Keying)
• Bit separated into even and odd bits , the duration
of each bit is doubled (Scheme uses two
frequencies: f1(the lower frequency) f2(the higher
frequency)
• Depending on the bit values (even, odd) the higher
or lower frequency, original or inverted is chosen.
• The frequency of one carrier is twice the frequency
of the other
• Equivalent to offset QPSK
• Even higher bandwidth efficiency using a
Gaussian low pass filter
 Advanced Frequency Shift Key
• If Even and Odd bits are both zero:
– Higher frequency f2 is inverted (i.e. f2 is used
)
• If Even bit is 1 and odd bit is zero:
– Lower frequency f1 is inverted (in the fifth to
seventh column)
• If Even bit is zero and the odd bit is 1:
– f1 is taken without phase change , as is.(as
columns from 1 to 3)
• If both even and odd bits are 1:
– Frequency f2 is taken as is.
• When used for analog signals, frequency modulation
and amplitude modulation lead to continuous
variations in the frequency or amplitude of a carrier
wave.

• When modulation techniques are used for digital

communication, the variations applied to the carrier
are restricted according to the discrete information
being transmitted.

• Examples of common digital modulation types are

OOK (on/off keying), ASK (amplitude shift keying), and
FSK (frequency shift keying). These schemes cause
the carrier to assume one of two possible states
depending on whether the system must transmit a
binary 1 or a binary 0; each discrete carrier state is
referred to as a symbol.
• In ASK, for example, the carrier amplitude
is either amplitude option A (representing a
1) or amplitude option B (representing a
0). In QPSK, the carrier varies in terms of
phase, not frequency, and there
are four possible phase shifts.
• We can intuitively determine what these
four possible phase shifts should be: First
we recall that modulation is only the
beginning of the communication process;
the receiver needs to be able to extract the
original information from the modulated
• To seek maximum separation between the
four phase options, so that the receiver
has less difficulty distinguishing one state
from another. We have 360° of phase to
work with and four phase states, and thus
the separation should be 360°/4 = 90°. So
our four QPSK phase shifts are 45°, 135°,
225°, and 315°.
 Advanced Phase Shift Key
• Digital modulation is often a means of
transmitting payload data from orbiting
satellites to ground stations.
• Such is the case for satellites in the Indian
Remote Sensing (IRS) satellite system.
– In one such approach, quadrature phase-
shift-keying (QPSK) modulation provides
both spectral and power efficiency.
– In a QPSK modulator, two data streams
simultaneously modulate a carrier signal. For
optimum use of available satellite power, an
unbalanced QPSK (UQPSK) modulator is
 Advanced Phase Shift Key
• Communications channels in satellite-
communications (satcom) systems, as well
as communications systems in general,
can be categorized as being power- or
bandwidth-limited.
• The prime goal of spectrally efficient
modulation is to optimize bandwidth
efficiency, which is defined as the ratio of
the data rate to the channel bandwidth (in
b/s/Hz).
• A secondary goal of such a modulation
What is Multicarrier Modulation?
• Multicarrier modulation, MCM is a
technique for transmitting data by sending
the data over multiple carriers which are
normally close spaced.
• Multicarrier modulation has several
advantages including resilience to
interference, resilience to narrow band
fading and multipath effects.
• As a result, multicarrier modulation
techniques are widely used for data
transmission as it is able to provide an
 Multicarrier Modulation Basics
• Multicarrier modulation operates by
dividing the data stream to be transmitted
into a number of lower data rate data
streams. Each of the lower data rate
streams is then used to modulate an
individual carrier.
• When the overall transmission is received,
the receiver has to then re-assembles the
overall data stream from those received on
the individual carriers.
• It is possible to use a variety of different
techniques for multicarrier transmissions.
 Multicarrier Modulation
Advantages
• The advantages of MCM include
relative immunity to fading caused by
transmission over more than one path
at a time (multipath fading), less
susceptibility than single-carrier
systems to interference caused by
impulse noise, and enhanced
immunity to inter-symbol interference.
Limitations include difficulty in
synchronizing the carriers under
 Spread Spectrum
• Spread spectrum is a technique used for
transmitting radio or telecommunications
signals. The term refers to the practice of
spreading the transmitted signal to occupy
the frequency spectrum available for
transmission.

• The advantages of spectrum spreading

include noise reduction, security and
resistance to jamming and interception.
 Spread Spectrum
• A conventional wireless signal has a
frequency, usually specified in megahertz
(MHz) or gigahertz gigahertz), that does not
change with time (except for small, rapid
fluctuations that occur as a result of
modulation).
• When you listen to a signal at 103.1 MHz on
an FM stereo receiver, for example, the
signal stays at 103.1 MHz. It does not go up
to 105.1 MHz or down to 99.1 MHz.
• The digits on the radio's frequency dial stay
the same at all times.
• The frequency of a conventional wireless
 Spread Spectrum-FHSS
• Spread spectrum multiple access techniques uses
signals which have a transmission bandwidth of a
magnitude greater than the minimum required RF
bandwidth.
– These are of two types.
• Frequency Hopped Spread Spectrum (FHSS)
• Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum (DSSS)
• Frequency Hopped Spread Spectrum (FHSS)
• This is frequency hopping technique, where the
users are made to change the frequencies of
usage, from one to another in a specified time
interval, hence called as frequency hopping.
– For example, a frequency was allotted to sender 1 for
a particular period of time. Now, after a while, sender
1 hops to the other frequency and sender 2 uses the
first frequency, which was previously used by sender
1. This is called as frequency reuse.
 Spread Spectrum-DSSS
Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum
(DSSS)
• Whenever a user wants to send data
using this DSSS technique, each and
every bit of the user data is multiplied
by a secret code, called as chipping
code. This chipping code is nothing
but the spreading code which is
multiplied with the original message
 Comparison between FHSS and
DSSS/CDMA
FHSS DSSS/ CDMA
• Multiple frequencies are • Single frequency is used
used • User frequency, once
• Hard to find the user’s allotted is always the
frequency at any instant same
of time • Frequency reuse is not
• Frequency reuse is allowed
allowed • Sender has to wait if the
• Sender need not wait spectrum is busy
• Power strength of the • Power strength of the
signal is high signal is low
• Stronger and penetrates • It is weaker compared to
through the obstacles FHSS
• It is never affected by • It can be affected by
interference interference
 Spread
Spectrum(Advantages)
• Cross-talk elimination
• Better output with data integrity
• Reduced effect of multipath fading
• Better security
• Reduction in noise
• Co-existence with other systems
• Longer operative distances
• Hard to detect
• Not easy to demodulate/decode
• Difficult to jam the signals
Although spread spectrum techniques were originally
designed for military uses, they are now being used
widely for commercial purpose.
Mobile(Cellular) Technologies
• Evolution of Mobile Communication
– Cellular Mobile Communication system
has gone through 3 stages:
• First Generation – Analog Mobile
Telephone System
• Second Generation- Digital Mobile
Communication System(1990)
• Third Generation- Digital Mobile
Communication System with increase
in functionality(2000)
What is Cellular Technology?
• Network made up of a number of
cells.
• Type of two-way radio
• Original 2-way-radio cell towers were
at the centers of the cells.
• Mobile Phone Network.
 What is a cell?
• The geographical area covered by
cellular radio antennas. These areas
are called cells.

• We want to depict an area totally

covered by radio, without any gaps.
 Advantages(Cell Network)
• Higher Capacity, Higher number of
users.
• Less transmission power needed
• Base station deals with interference ,
transmission area
– Cell is the area covered by some BTS (base
transceiver station)
• A base transceiver station (BTS) is a piece
of network equipment that facilitates
wireless communication between a device
 What is a Channel?
• Cell Phones and Base Stations
transmit or communicate with each
other on dedicated paired frequencies
called channels.
– Use 4 antennas per cell.
–There are two main channels:
• Control Channel
• Voice Channel
 Basic Operation
• Each cell site has a base station with
a computerized 800 0r 1900 MHz
transceiver and an antenna.
• 1 to 10 kms in radius
• The Area Size depends on:
– Topography
– Population
– Traffic
 Cellular Telephone System
• Mobile Station(MS): Mobile handsets, which is
used by an user to communicate with one
another.
• Cell : Each cellular service area is divided into
small regions called cell( 5 to 20 km)
• Base Stations(BS): Each cell contains an
antenna , which is controlled by a small office.
• Mobile Switching Center(MSC): Each base
station is controlled by a switching office, called
mobile switching center.
 Basic Operation
• Cellular System for mobile
communication implement SDM.
• Each transmitter , typically called a
base station, covers a certain area,
called a cell.
– Cell radii can vary from tens of meters
(buildings) to hundred of meters (cities) upto
tens of kilometers (countryside)
• Typical system using the approach are
mobile telecommunication system where
 Cellular System
Advantages
• High Frequency: If one
transmitter is far away from
another , it can reuse the
same frequencies.
• Less transmission power:
A receiver far away from a
base station would need
more transmit power than the
current few Watts.
• Local interference only:
long distance between
sender and receiver
(interference problem) but
with small cell(distance)
mobile stations & base
stations deals with ‘local’
Disadvantages
• Infrastructure needed:
Cellular systems need a
complex
infrastructure(antennas,
switches..etc) to connect all
base systems.
• Handover needed: The
mobile station has to perform
a handover when changing
from one cell to another.
Depending on the cell size &
the speed of movement, this
can happen quite often.
• Frequency Planning: To
avoid interference between
transmitters using same
 Frequency Reuse Concept
• Cellular telephone systems rely on an intelligent
allocation and reuse of channels. Each base
station is given a group of radio channels to be
used within a cell. Base stations in neighboring
cells are assigned completely different set of
channel frequencies.
• By Limiting the coverage areas called footprints,
within cell boundaries , the same set of channels
may be used to cover different cells separated
from one another by a distance large enough to
keep interference level within tolerable limits.
• Cells with the same letter use the same set of
frequencies , called reusing cell.
• N cells which collectively use the available
frequencies (S= k.N) is known as cluster.
• As the demand
increases in a
particular region,
the number of
stations can be
increased by
replacing a cell
with a cluster as
shown.
• Here cell C has
been replaced with
a cluster. However,
this will be possible