NUMERATION SYSTEM

A system of reading and writing numbers is a numeration system.

This consists of symbols and rules or principles on how to use these
symbols. Our system of reading and writing numbers is the decimal
system or the Hindu-Arabic system. Ten digits are used-
0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8, and 9. This system

is based on groups of ten. It uses the place value concept.

  MIXED DECIMALS

• In reading mixed decimals the whole number is read first,

followed by the word “and” to locate the decimal point,
then the decimal. In reading decimal, read the numbers to
the right of the decimal point as if it were whole number.
Then say the name of the position of the last digit on the
right as the same of the decimal. We read the number in the
second place value chart as “sixty-eight thousand, three
hundred fourteen and three hundred sixty-eight million nine
hundred forty-two thousand fifteen billionths. The ths in
the name of a digit to the right of the decimal point
distinguishes it from the name of the corresponding digit to
the left of the decimal point. There are no commas in the
decimal.
 ROUNDING OFF NUMBERS
When portion of the dropped begins with 0, 1,2,3,4 or less than 5, the last digit to be retained is
unchanged.
Example: 34, 214.018 34, 214 rounded off to the nearest ones 34,
210 rounded off to the nearest tens
34, 200 rounded off to the nearest hundreds

When the portion to be dropped begins with 6,7,8,9, or a digit greater than 5, the last digit to be retained
in increased by 1.
Example: P98. 726 P 98.73 rounded off to the nearest centavo
P 99 rounded off to the nearest pesos
P 100 rounded off to the nearest ten pesos

When the portion to be dropped is exactly 5, 50, 500 .5 etc. or exactly half of the preceding place value,
we round it off to the nearest even number.
Example: P 47.235 P 47.24 rounded off to the nearest centavos
P 25,000 P 20,000 rounded off to the nearest ten thousands (half of the preceding place
value)

The digits dropped in the whole number are replaced by zero or zeros. Using the examples above.
Examples: 34, 214.018 34, 210 rounded off to the nearest ones
34, 200 rounded off to the nearest hundreds
34, 000 rounded off to the nearest thousands
 SIMPLE AVERAGES

To get the simple average, we get the sum of all given

values and divide the sum by the number of values.
Example: Find the average of the following grades: 85%,
78%, 87%, 80%, 83%, 90%.
Solution: 85%
78% 503 / 6 = 83.5%
87%
80%
83%
90%_
503%
 WEIGHTED AVERAGE

To get the weighted average, we multiply the quantities by the

measures involved. Then we divide the sum of the products by the
sum of the quantities.
Example:
A sewer made 10 bags. On 3 bags, she spent 2 hours each; on 4
bags, 3 hours each; and on 3 bags, 1 hour each. What was the
average time spent on each bag?
Solution:
3 bags x 2 hours= 6 hours
4 bags x 3 hours= 12 hours
3 bags x 1 hour = 3 hours
10 bags = 21 hours
21 hours / 10 bags = 2.1 hours or 2 hours and 6 minutes.
 
 FRACTIONS 

• A fraction is one or more of the equal parts into

which a whole is divided. The terms of the fraction
are numerator and denominator. The numerator is
the number above the line showing how many of
the equal parts are expressed or taken. The
denominator is the number below the line showing
into how many equal parts the whole is divided.
The line between the numerator and the
denominator is the “vinculum” which means
“divided by”.
 KINDS OF FRACTIONS

• Proper fraction
• Improper fraction
• Mixed number
• Similar fractions
• Dissimilar fractions
• Decimal fraction
 OTHER TERMS

• Least common denominator (LCD)

• Lowest-terms fraction
• Reciprocal of a fraction
 LAWS OF FRACTIONS

• The value of a fraction does not change if its

terms are multiplied by the same number
except zero. Example: ½ x 3/3 = 3/6

• The value of a fraction does not change if its

terms are divided by the same number except
zero. Example: 3/9 / 3/3 = 1/3
 CONVERSION OF FRACTIONS
• Improper fraction to a whole or mixed numbers. To change the improper
fraction to a whole or mixed number, we divide the numerator of the fraction
by its denominator. The remainder becomes the numerator and the divisor
the denominator of the fraction.
• Mixed number to an improper fraction. To change a mixed number to an
improper fraction, we multiply the whole number by the denominator of the
fraction. Then, we add the product to the numerator of the fraction over the
denominator.
• Lower terms fraction to higher terms fraction. To raise a fraction from lower
to higher terms, we multiply both numerator and denominator by the
number that will result to the specified denominator of bigger value.
• Higher terms fraction to lowest terms fraction. To reduce a fraction from
higher to lowest terms, we divide both the numerator and denominator by
the greatest common factor.
• Dissimilar fractions to similar fractions. To change dissimilar fractions we find
the LCD and divide it be each denominator. Then we multiply each quotient
by the numerator and place it over the LCD
 ADDITION OF FRACTIONS
• In adding similar fractions, we add the numerator
and write the sum over the common
denominator.
• In adding dissimilar fractions, we make the
fractions similar before addition.
• In adding mixed numbers, we add the whole
numbers first then combine the two. If the whole
numbers are not very large we can change the
mixed numbers to improper fractions; then we
add.
 SUBTRACTION OF FRACTIONS
• In subtracting similar fractions, we change the
fraction to similar fractions first before we subtract.
• In subtracting dissimilar fractions, we change the
fraction to similar fractions first before we subtract.
• In subtracting mixed numbers, we subtract the
whole numbers first and then the fractions. We can
also subtract them by changing the mixed numbers
to improper fractions. This will be difficult if the
whole numbers are very large.
• When the value of the fraction in the subtrahend is
bigger than the value in the minuend, we borrow 1
unit from the whole number of the minuend,
change it to similar fractions and add it to the
fraction. Then we proceed to subtraction.
• If we change both mixed numbers to improper
fractions, we can proceed to subtraction at once
without borrowing.
• When the fractions in the mixed numbers are
dissimilar, we change them first to similar
fractions; then we subtract.
 MULTIPLICATION OF FRACTIONS
• In multiplying fractions, we multiply the
numerators together to form a new numerator.
Then we multiply the denominators to form
new denominator.
 FRACTION AND A WHOLE NUMBER

• In multiplying a fraction and a whole number,

we multiply the whole number by the
numerator of the fraction and write the
product over the denominator of the fraction.
 FRACTION AND MIXED NUMBER

• In multiplying a fraction and a mixed number,

we change the mixed number to an improper
fraction and then we proceed to multiplication.
 A  MIXED NUMBER AND A WHOLE 
NUMBER
• In multiplying a mixed numbers, we change the
mixed numbers to improper fractions; then, we
proceed to multiplication.
 MIXED NUMBER AND MIXED NUMBER

• In multiplying mixed numbers, we change the

mixed numbers to improper fractions; then we
proceed to multiplication.
 CANCELLATION

• In canceling factors, we divide a pair of

numerator and denominator by the same
number just as when we reduce a fraction to
lowest terms.
 DIVISION OF FRACTIONS
• In dividing fractions, we invert the divisor and
multiply. All rules pertaining to multiplication
of fractions will be applied.
 RATIO 

• A ratio is a relation between two like numbers

or quantities expressed as a quotient or
fraction.
• We can also reduce ratios to their lowest terms
in the same manner that fractions are reduced.
 PROPORTIONS
• A proportion is a statement that two ratios are equal.
There are four terms in a proportion: the first and
fourth terms are called extremes; the second and the
third are known as the means. Hence, the ratio 6:24
which is equal to the ratio 1:4 can be expressed as a
proportion 6: 24 = 1:4, 6 and 4 are the extremes
while 24 and 1 are means. To check whether our
proportion is correct, the rule is: the product of the
means equals the product of the extremes.
•
 CONVERSION TECHNIQUES
• To reduce a decimal to a common fraction, we
write the given decimal number disregarding the
decimal point as the numerator of a common
fraction with a denominator of the power of 10 of
the given decimal.
• Examples: .7 = 7/10 There is one decimal place
so the denominator is 10.
• To reduce a common fraction to a decimal, we
divide the numerator by the denominator.
• Example: ½ = 0.5
• To change percent to a decimal, we move the
decimal point two places to the left and drop
the percent sign. If the percent is in fractional
units, we change first the fraction to decimal
before moving the decimal point.
• Example: 40% = .40
• To change a decimal to a percent, we move
the decimal point two places to the right and
add the percent sign.
• Example: .23 = 23%
• To change a percent to a fraction, we drop the percen
sign and replace it by 100 as denominator. If the
percent is in decimal, we move the decimal point two
places to the left after dropping the percent sign. The
we convert the decimal to its fractional equivalent. If
the percent is in fraction, divide it by 100 and drop the
percent sign.
• Example: 27% = 27/100
• To change a fraction to a percent, we divide
the numerator by the denominator, then we
move the decimal point of the quotient two
places to the right and add the percent sign.
For a mixed number, we change it first to an
improper fraction before performing the
indicated division.
• Example: 3/5 = .60 = 60%
 PERCENTAGE PROBLEMS
• A percentage is the result obtained by
taking a certain percent of a number.
Percentage is equal to the base times the rate.
The base is the number on which the
percentage is computed. The rate is the
number indicating how many percent or
hundredths are taken.
 PERCENTAGE FORMULAS
• P = R X B R = P/B B = P/R
• The base (B) is usually preceded by the
preposition “of” in word problems. “Of”
indicates multiplication. The word “is” is
symbolized by the equal sign (=). Other words
may be used instead “of” as “as many as” , “as
large as”, “as great as”, “ as much as”.
 PERCENTAGE FORMULAS cont..
• The rate ( R ) is identifiable because it is usually
in the form of a percent. However, it can also
be in decimal, or in a fraction.
• The percentage (P) refers to the equal
quantity or number of items represented by
the rate.
 PERCENTAGE FORMULAS cont..
Sample Problems:
• What number is 5% of 480
P= R x B
P = .05 x 480
P = 24
 PERCENTAGE FORMULAS cont..
• Percentage is unknown. 5% is changed to a
decimal (.05%) before multiplying it to 480.
Another way is to change 5% to fraction ( 5 /
100 or 1/20) before multiplying it to 480 and
we arrive at the same product.
 PERCENTAGE FORMULAS cont..
P 26 is what part of P 130?
P= R x B
R= P / B
R = 26 / 130
R = 1 /5
 PROBLEMS INVOLVING PERCENTAGE 
INCREASE OR DECREASE

• Note: We don’t multiply or divide a number by

percent. We always change the percent to a
decimal or a fraction first before multiplying or
dividing.
 PROBLEMS INVOLVING PERCENTAGE 
INCREASE OR DECREASE   Cont…

• To find the percentage of increase or decrease,

we multiply the base by the rate and add the
product to the base if it is an increase but
subtract the product from the base if it is a
decrease.
B + ( B X R ) = PERCENTAGE OF INCREASE
B – ( B X R ) = PERCENTAGE OF DECREASE
 PROBLEMS INVOLVING PERCENTAGE 
INCREASE OR DECREASE Cont…

• Example: P 120 increased by 12% is how

much?
B R = P of increase
P 120 + ( P 120 x .12) = P 134.40
 PROBLEMS INVOLVING PERCENTAGE 
INCREASE OR DECREASE Cont…

• To find the rate of increase or decrease, get the

difference between the two given related
values and divide it by the base or original
quantity. Change the fraction to percent if it is
needed.

LARGER VALUE – SMALLER VALUE = RATE OF INCREASE OR DECREASE

BASE OR ORIGINAL QUANTITY
 PROBLEMS INVOLVING PERCENTAGE 
INCREASE OR DECREASE Cont…

• Example : Find what percent, more than 25 is 30?

• 30 - 25 = 5 = 20%
25 25
• To determine the base when a number that is a
fractional part or percent greater than or smaller than
that of the unknown value, we divide the given
number or percentage by the sum (if greater than) or
the difference (if smaller than) between 1 and the
given fraction or 100% and the given rate.
 PROBLEMS INVOLVING PERCENTAGE 
INCREASE OR DECREASE Cont…

• P = BASE OF INCREASE
1 + FRACTION
• P = BASE OF INCREASE
1 - FRACTION
• P = BASE OF INCREASE
100% + Given %
• P = BASE OF INCREASE
100% - Given %
 PROBLEMS INVOLVING PERCENTAGE 
INCREASE OR DECREASE Cont…

Example: 2/5 greater than amount is P 70?

P 70 = P 70 = P 70 = P 70 x 5/7 = P 50

1 + 2/5 5/5 + 2/5 7/5

 DIVISIBILITY RULES
• Rule 1. Divisibility by 0 or 1
• Any number is divisible by 1. Any number
divided by 1 is the number itself. 0 divided by
any number is 0. Any number divided by 0 is
undefined.
 DIVISIBILITY RULES
• Rule 2. Divisibility by 2.
• A number is divisible by 2 if, and only if, the last
digit is even, that is, if it is 0,2,4,6,8,.

• Rule 3. Divisibility by 3.
• A number is divisible by 3 and if only if its digital
root (sum of the digits) is divisible by 3.
 DIVISIBILITY RULES
• Rule 4. Divisibility by 4
• A number is divisible by 4 if, and if only of, the
last two digits form a number which is divisible
by 4.

• Rule 5. Divisibility by 5.
• A number that ends in 0 or 5 is divisible by 5.
 DIVISIBILITY RULES
• Rule 6. Divisible by 6.
• A number that is divisible both by 2 and 3 is
divisible by 6.
 DIVISIBILITY RULES
• Rule 7. Divisibility by 7
To test if the number is divisible by 7 follow these steps.
• For three or more than three digit number.
– Multiply the last digit (unit digits) by 2.
– Get the difference of these product ( from step 1) and the
remaining number (without the units digits)
– Repeat step 1 and 2 until you reached a two-digit
difference. If this difference is divisible by 7, then the
number is divisible by 7.
 DIVISIBILITY RULES
• Rule 7. Divisibility by 7
• If the number consist of more than 3 digits you
can use these alternative rule.
– Divide the number into periods of three digits each
beginning with the last digits.
– Add together the odd numbered periods, and then
all the even numbered periods.
– Take the difference of the two sums. If this
difference is divisible by 7, then the number is
divisible by 7.
 DIVISIBILITY RULES
• Rule 8. Divisibility by 8
• A number is divisible by 8 if and if only if the
last three digits form a number that is divisible
by 8.
 DIVISIBILITY RULES
• Rule 9.  Divisibility by 9.
• A number is divisible by 9 if, and only if the
digital root ( sum of the digits) is 0 or 9. When
the digital root of a number is not 0 or 9, that
digital root is the remainder when the number
is divided by 9.
 DIVISIBILITY RULES
• Rule 10. Divisibility by 10.
• A number ending in 0 is always divisible by 10.
 DIVISIBILITY RULES
• Rule 11. Divisibility by 11.
• To test if the number is divisible by 11,
alternatively subtract and add the digits from
the last digits to the first, that is from right to
left. If the end result is divisible by 11, then the
number is divisible by 11, otherwise the end
result is the remainder when the number is
divisible by 11. OR
 DIVISIBILITY RULES
Cont…
• A number is divisible by 11 if the difference
(large minus smaller) between the sum of the
odd-numbered digits and the sum of the even
numbered digits is divisible by 11.
 DIVISIBILITY RULES
• Rule 12. Divisibility by 12.
• A number is divisible by 12 if, and only if, it is
divisible by 3 and 4.
 DIVISIBILITY RULES
• Rule 13. Divisibility by 11,7 and 13
• To test if the number with more than three
digits is divisible by 7, 11 and 13, follow the
step by step procedure:
• Starting from the right end of the number,
divide the number into periods of three digits.
 DIVISIBILITY RULES
• Rule 13. Divisibility by 11,7 and 13 Cont…
• Add the odd numbered periods together and
the even numbered periods together.
• Find the difference of the two sums. If that
difference is divisible by 7 or 11 or 13, then the
number is divisible by whichever divisor that
divides it evenly.
 DIVISIBILITY RULES
• Rule 14. Divisibility by 25; 75 and 125
• A number is divisible by 25 if, and only if, the
last two digits form a number divisible by 25. A
number divisible by 75 if it is divisible by 3 and
25. A number is divisible by 125 have the last
three digits divisible by 125.
 FACTORS, MULTIPLIES, GCF, LCM, PRIME 
OR COMPOSITE
• Any counting number a can be expressed as the product of b
and c, which are both counting numbers.
• That is, a = b x c
Then a is a multiple of b and of c.
Consider 42 and 68. Then,
42 =6x7
= 2 x 21
= 3 x 14
= 1 x 42
 FACTORS, MULTIPLIES, GCF, LCM, PRIME 
OR COMPOSITE
• Thus, 42 is a multiple of 1, 2, 3, 6, 7, 14, 21 and
42.
• 68 = 2 x 34
= 4 x 17
= 1 x 68
 FACTORS, MULTIPLIES, GCF, LCM, PRIME 
OR COMPOSITE
• What are the factors of 42 and 68?
• We mentioned previously that 1 and the
number itself are factors of the given number.
This time we will be considering the kinds of
numbers according to their factors.
• Consider the following counting numbers:
43 10 81 12 97
 FACTORS, MULTIPLIES, GCF, LCM, PRIME 
OR COMPOSITE
• Let us list the factors of the above counting
numbers by expressing them as the product of
two counting numbers.
43 = 43 x 1
10 = 2 x 5 = 10 x 1
81 = 9 x 9 = 27 x 3 = 81 x 1
12 = 4 x 3 = 2 x 6 = 12 x 1
97 = 97 x 1
 FACTORS, MULTIPLIES, GCF, LCM, PRIME 
OR COMPOSITE
• We see that 43 and 97 have factors 1 and themselves.
While 10, 81, and 12 have different factors other than
1 and themselves. Thus we come up with the
following definitions:
• if a counting number has 1 and itself as its only
factors, then the counting number is called a prime
number.
• If a counting number has factors other than 1 and
itself, then the counting number is called a composite
number.
 FACTORS, MULTIPLIES, GCF, LCM, PRIME 
OR COMPOSITE
• Example: Factors the following number: 13, 9,
2, and 21.
• 13 = 13 x 1
• 9 = 3x3=9x1
• 2 = 2x1
• 21 = 3 x 7 = 21 x 1
 FACTORS, MULTIPLIES, GCF, LCM, PRIME 
OR COMPOSITE
• Note that 13 and 2 are prime numbers, while 9
and 21 are composite numbers.
• A prime number is a number greater than one,
which has only two factors, one and itself.
• The prime numbers less than 50 are 2,
3,5,7,11,13,17,19,23,29,31,37,41,43 and 47.
 Composite Numbers and Prime Factors

• A whole number which is not prime, and is

greater than 1 is called a composite number. It
can be expressed as a product of two smaller
factors. Examples are 4,6,8,10.
• The number 0 and 1 are special numbers which
are neither prime nor composite.
 Greatest Common Factor (gcf) or greatest 
common divisor (gcd)
• of two or more whole number is the greatest
whole number that is a factor or a divisor of
the given numbers. This is less than or equal to
the smallest number given. If the greatest
common factor of the given number is 1, then
the numbers are said to be relatively prime.
 Greatest Common Factor (gcf) or greatest 
common divisor (gcd) cont…
• Consider all the factors of 12 and 36.
12 = 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 12
36 = 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 9, 12, 18, 36
• The factors of 12 and which are also the factors
of 36 are called common factors. So 1, 2, 3, 4, 6
and 12 are the common factors of 12 and 36
• The largest common factor, 12, is called the
Greatest Common Factor or GCF
 Greatest Common Factor (gcf) or greatest 
common divisor (gcd) cont…
• Remarks:
• The number 1 is neither prime or composite.
• The number 2 is the smallest prime number,
and it is the only even prime number.
Greatest Common Factor (gcf) or greatest common 
divisor (gcd) cont…

• The first ten prime number are 2, 3, 5, 7, 11,

13, 17, 19, 23, and 29. Since we can always
determine more prime numbers (although this
may be quite a chore), we say there are an
infinite number of primes.
• Prime and composite are terms that relate only
to counting numbers.
Greatest Common Factor (gcf) or greatest common 
divisor (gcd) cont…
• There are couple of ways to determine the prime factorization
of a number. One of these methods is described as follows:
• Method 1: Factor Tree
• Find two numbers whose product is the given number.
• if each of these factors is prime, then you have found the
prime factors of the given number.
• If the factors in step 2 are not prime numbers, find two
numbers whose product is equal to the factors in step 2.
• Repeat step 3 until all the factors are prime numbers.
Greatest Common Factor (gcf) or greatest common 
divisor (gcd) cont…

• Example: Write the prime factorization of 24.

• Solution:
– Find the numbers that when multiplied, give 24.
Two possible numbers are 4 and 6.
– Since neither factor is prime, we continue with
step 3
– Two numbers that give a product of 4 are 2 and 2.
Go to step 2.
Greatest Common Factor (gcf) or greatest common 
divisor (gcd) cont…

• Method 2: Decomposition
• Repeatedly divide the given number by prime
numbers like 2,3,5, and so on, until a quotient
of 1 is obtained. All remainders obtained in
these division must be 0.
• Write the prime factorization by using all the
divisors from step 1 as factors.
Greatest Common Factor (gcf) or greatest common 
divisor (gcd) cont…

• GCF
• If c is the greatest whole number that can
divide a and b, such that the quotient is again a
whole number, then c is the greatest common
factor (GCF) of a and b. We denote GCF of a
and b as (a, b) = c.
Greatest Common Factor (gcf) or greatest common 
divisor (gcd) cont…

• LCM
The least common multiple (LCM) of any two
or more whole numbers is the smallest whole
that they can devide such that the quotient is
again a whole number. We denote the LCM of
a and b as (a,b) = c.
 TOPICS ON ANGLES AND LINES
• Definition
• Betweeness: Let A, B, and C be the three points on a
line, B is between A and C if a<b<c or c>b>a. B is also
between A and C if /AB/ +/ BC/ = /AC/.
• Line segment. The line segment determined by the
points P and Q is the set consisting of P and Q and all
the points between them. The length of the line
segment is the distance between points P and Q.
 TOPICS ON ANGLES AND LINES Cont…

• Ray PQ. This is the union of the line segment

PQ and all the points on the line PQ, such that
Q is between P and these points. Point P is the
endpoint of the ray.
• Ray opposite ray PQ: This is the set consisting
of the point P and all the points of the line PQ
which do not belong to ray PQ. Opposite rays is
always collinear.
 TOPICS ON ANGLES AND LINES Cont…

• Collinear: Two or more points are collinear if

and only if there is a line containing all these
points.
• Coplanar: Two or more points are coplanar if
and only if there is a plane containing these
points.
• Midpoint: R is the midpoint of line segment PQ
if R is on line segment PQ and PR = RQ
 TOPICS ON ANGLES AND LINES Cont…

• Angle: This is a set of points in the union of

two noncollinear rays which intersect at their
endpoints. The rays are the sides of the angle
and the common endpoint is the vertex.
• Right,Acute and Obtuse angles: An angle is
right if it measures 90 degrees. It is acute if its
measure is less than 90. It is obtuse if its
measure is more than 90.
 TOPICS ON ANGLES AND LINES Cont…

• Vertical angles: These angles are vertical when

their union forms two intersecting lines.
• Complementary angles: Two angles having 90
as the sum of their measures.
• Supplementary angles: Two angles having 180
as the sum of their measures.
 TOPICS ON ANGLES AND LINES Cont…

• Adjacent angles: Two angles which are

coplanar, have common vertex and a common
side, and the intersection of their interiors is
empty.
• Congruent angles: Angles with the same
measures.
• Congruent line segments: Segments with the
same length.
 TOPICS ON ANGLES AND LINES Cont…

• Perpendicular: A line, ray, or segment is

perpendicular to another line, ray or segment
if they intersect and form a right angle. The
point of intersection is called the foot of the
perpendicular.
• Parallel lines: Two lines which are coplanar
and do not intersect.
 TOPICS ON ANGLES AND LINES Cont…

• Skew lines: Two lines which do not lie on one

plane.
• Transversals: This is a line that intersects two
other at different points. Note: Different kinds 
of angle formed: alternate interior angles, 
alternate exterior angles, and corresponding 
angles.
• Concurrent lines: Three or more lines that meet
at point.
 Topics on Triangle
• Triangle: Triangle ABC (denoted by ABC) is the
union of segments AB, BC, and AC. The points
A,B, and C are the vertices, the segments
AB,BC, and AC are the sides, <A,<B,<C are the
angles.
• Sides Included between two angles: This is the
side whose endpoints are the vertices of the
two angles.
 Topics on Triangle
• Angle Included between two sides: This is the
angle formed by the two sides.
• Right triangle: A triangle with one right angle.
The sides that are perpendicular (sides forming
the right angle) are called the LEGS, and the
side opposite the right angle is hypotenuse.
The hypotenuse is longer than any of the legs
of the right triangle.
 Topics on Triangle
• Obtuse triangle: A triangle with one obtuse angle.
• Acute triangle: A triangle which has three acute
angles.
• Isosceles triangle: A triangle with two sides
congruent. The congruent sides are called the LEGS
and the third side, the BASE. The VERTEX angle is
the angle formed by the legs; the two remaining
angles are the Base angles.
 Topics on Triangle
• Scalene triangle: Triangle having no sides
congruent.
• Equilateral triangle: A triangle with all sides
congruent.
• Equiangular triangle: A triangle with three
congruent angles. The measure of each is 60
degrees.
 Topics on Triangle
• Altitude of a triangle: This is a line segment
drawn from the vertex of the triangle
perpendicular to the line containing the
opposite side.
• Median of the triangle: This is a line segment
from the vertex to the midpoint of the
opposite side.
 FORMULAS for Areas and Perimeters of 
geometrical figures:
• Triangle:
A=½bh
P=a+b+c

• Square:
A = s2
P = 4s
 FORMULAS for Areas and Perimeters of 
geometrical figures:
• Rectangle:
A=L xw
P = 2L + 2w

• Trapezoid:
A = ½ h (b1 + b2)
 FORMULAS for Areas and Perimeters of 
geometrical figures:
• Rhombus:
A = ½ d1d2

• Circle: A = π r2
C = 2π r

• Area of equilateral triangle

A = s2/4
 Algebra
 Basic Rules:
• Commutative Property of addition
a+b=b+a
• Commutative Property of Multiplication
ab = ba
• Associative Property of Addition
(a + b) + c = a + ( b + c)
• Associative Property of Multiplication
( ab) c = a ( bc )
 Algebra
 Basic Rules:
• Distributive property
a ( b + c ) = ab + bc ( a + b) c = ac + bc
• Additive Identity Property
a+0=0+a=a
• Multiplicative Identity Property
a .1 = 1 . a = 1
 Algebra
 Basic Rules:
• Additive Inverse Property
• a + (-a) = 0
• Multiplicative Inverse Property
• a . 1/a = 1, a ≠ 0
 Properties of Exponents
• xm . x n = xm+n
• ( xy)n = xnyn
• (xm)n = xmn
• xm = xm – n ; m > n
ym
• (x/y)n = xnyn
• x0 = 1
• x-n = 1/ xn ; x ≠ 0
 INTRODUCTION to PROBABILITY THEORY

• Techniques in Counting:
– The Fundamental Principle. If an event E1 can
happen in n1 number of ways and another event E2
can happen in n2 number of ways, then the number
of ways both events can happen in the specified
order = n1 n2 ways.
• Permutation is an arrangement or objects
wherein order is taken into account.
 INTRODUCTION to PROBABILITY THEORY

• Permutation of objects taken all at a time.

n P n = n!

• Permutation of n objects taken r at a time.

n P r = 

• Circular Permutation ( one position must be

fixed)
( n-1) P (n-1) = (n – 1) !
INTRODUCTION to PROBABILITY THEORY

Permutation of n objects not all distinct

Combination is a selection of objects with no

attention given to the order of the objects.
 INTRODUCTION to PROBABILITY THEORY

Combination of n objects taken all at the

same time
nCn =1

Combination of n objects taken r at a time.

nCr=
 INTRODUCTION to PROBABILITY THEORY

• Combination in a series
n
nC1+nC2+nC3+…nCn=2 –1
– Classical Definition of Probability
• The probability of the occurrence of an event (called
success) is
Pr (E) =
Where
n = no. of successes
N = total number of possible outcomes
 Scientific Notation
• A number is expressed in scientific notation
when it is written in the form
a x 10n
where 1 is less than/equal to a < 10 and n is an
integer.
 RADICAL EXPRESSIONS
• If n is a positive integer greater than 1, a and
b are real numbers such that
• xn = a, then x is the nth root of a.
• Let n be a positive integer greater than 1,
and let a be a real number such that is
denoted in real numbers. Then, a1/n =
 Radicals
• If n is a positive integer greater than 1, and a
and b are real numbers such that
bn =a, then b is an nth root of a.
Example:
• 7 is a square root of 49 because 72 = 49;
furthermore
• -7 is also a square root of 49 because (-7)2 = 49
 Radicals
• Let n be a positive integer greater than 1, and a be a
real number. The principal nth root of a is denoted by
, and has the following defining properties:
• If a then is the positive nth root of a.
• If a < 0 and n is odd, then is the negative nth root
of a , and = 0
• If a and n is even, then has no meaning in
real numbers.
Radicals