Alloys for

fpd
PRESENTED BY-
SAPNA YADAV
PG 1st YEAR
DEPT. OF PROSTHODONTICS
INTRODUCTION
 WHAT IS AN ALLOY?

A mixture of two or more metals or metalloids that

are mutually soluble in the molten state;distinguished
as binary,ternary,quaternary,etc. depending on the
number of metals within the mixture.
Alloying elements are added to alter the
hardness,strength and toughness of a metallic
element,thus obtaining properties not found in pure
metal.(GPT8)
 INTRODUCTION
 Alloys have been used in dentistry for thousands of years
to replace natural tooth structure.
 The earliest restorations used pure gold because it was
easy to purify, melt, and manipulate.
 Other pure metals such as platinum also are used in
dentistry, but pure metals, including gold and platinum,
generally lack appropriate properties to be used for large
dental restorations.
 For this reason, metals and nonmetals are mixed together
to form alloys.
A and B, Gold foil restorations (arrows). The foil, which is gold in nearly pure form, is placed
piece by piece into the restoration. If uncontaminated, the pieces weld together into a single
mass under hand pressure at mouth temperature. In previous times, this technique was used
to restore tooth lesions of significant size, but today its use is restricted to small pit lesions,
usually in the posterior teeth. The gold foil technique is technically demanding, but quality
restorations last for decades. (Courtesy Richard V. Tucker, University of Washington
Department of Restorative Dentistry, Seattle, WA.)
Structure and properties of metals
Crystal structure
Metals usually have crystalline structures
in the solid state. When a molten metal or
alloy is cooled, the solidification process is
one of crystallization and is initiated at
specific sites called nuclei. The nuclei are
generally formed from impurities within
the molten mass of metal (a). Crystals
grow as dendrites or spherulites, which
can be described as three-dimensional,
structures emanating from the central
nucleus (b). Crystal growth continues until
all the material has solidified and all the
dendritic or spherical crystals are in Diagram illustrating crystallization of a metal
contact (c). Each crystal is known as a (a) from nuclei, (b) through dendritic growth,
grain and the area between two grains in (c) to form grains.
contact is the grain boundary.
possible arrangements of atoms in metals and alloys: (a) cubic
structure; (b) face-centred cubic; (c) body-centred cubic.
a) Simplified, diagrammatic indication of an imperfection in a
crystal structure. (b) Under the influence of sufficient force
atoms may move to establish a more perfect arrangement.
Control of metallic grain size by controlling the rate of
cooling from the melt. (a) Rapid cooling – more nuclei,
smaller grains. (b) Slow cooling – fewer nuclei, larger grains.
Mechanical work carried out on a sample of metal or alloy. (a) Below
the recrystallization temperature – produces a fibrous grain structure.
(b) Above the recrystallization temperature – retains an equiaxed grain
structure.
Fundamental Concepts About Metals and Alloys
Noble Metals, Base Metals, and Nonmetals
• Metals are elements in the periodic table of the
elements that tend to react by donating electrons to
other elements.
• Nearly two thirds of the periodic table is composed
of metals .
• Most elements used in dental alloys or solders are
metals, but nonmetals also play important roles. For
example, carbon is sometimes added to alloys in
small amounts (<1 wt. %) to strengthen the alloy
significantly (e.g., “carbon-steel”).
The periodic table of the elements is shown, with metallic elements denoted by the light-
orange shaded boxes. Many metallic elements are used in dental alloys. Several nonmetallic
elements, such as oxygen (O) or carbon (C), also are commonly used in dental alloys. The
noble elements (boxes shaded dark-orange) are known for their resistance to corrosion and
include gold (Au), palladium (Pd), platinum (Pt), iridium (Ir), rhodium (Rh), ruthenium (Ru),
and osmium (Os). Of the noble elements, only gold, palladium, and platinum (white
symbols) are major components of dental alloys. Non-noble metals are commonly referred
to as base metals.
ALLOYS USED IN DENTISTRY
Gold (left), palladium (middle), and platinum
(right) are three noble elements commonly
used in dental alloys. Gold and platinum also
have been used in pure form in dentistry (see
Figure 11-1). These three metals are classified
as noble because they show little tendency to
corrode in the oral environment. The larger
number stamped on the gold indicates the
mass in grams.
HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE ON DENTAL CASTING ALLOYS

YEAR EVENTS

1905 W.H. Taggart introduced LOST WAX TECHNIQUE

1932 National Bureau of Standards classified Gold based casting alloys

1933 Base metal removable partial denture alloys were introduced

1959 Porcelain fused to metal process

1971 The Gold Standard

1976 The Medical and Dental Devices act

1996 The European Medical Devices Directive

1998 The Clean Air Acts

Structure of alloys

Alloys are essentially crystalline in structure. The crystals that initially form then grow
towards each other until they touch. This is similar to how ice crystals form. At the point
where the crystals touch, the water is fully frozen. In the same way, the metallic crystals
grow as the alloy cools. The arrangement of the crystals depends on the size of the atoms
of the various constituent metals. If these are similar, then atoms of one constituent can
replace those of another. If one metal’s atoms are much smaller, they may be trapped
between the larger atoms, filling the interstitial space between the crystals.

The atomic arrangement of two solid

alloys: (A) a gold copper system and
(B) an aluminium titanium system.
The diagrams show the relative
positions of both elements within
the alloy.
Fig. Microstructure of (A) a solid alloy of iron, zinc and boron and (B) a titanium,
aluminium, molybdenum, vanadium and chromium alloy (VT22) after quenching. Note the
grains and their junctions (grain boundaries).
Crystal Structure and Grains of Alloys
Dental alloys have a crystal structure like ice, salt, or sugar. For example, when water freezes,
microscopic crystals of ice first form in the water then grow slowly in size until the crystals
run into one another and all of the water is frozen. There is a period in the freezing process
when ice and liquid water coexist. Alloys behave much the same way. When a molten (liquid)
alloy freezes, crystals form and grow as the alloy cools. These crystals, or grains as they are
called in metallurgy, can be seen clearly under a microscope (Figure 11-5). Each grain consists
of a crystal lattice of metal atoms. The lines between crystals are called grain boundaries. The
size of the grains is important; a small grain size is generally more desirable because it
ensures uniform properties of the alloy. Elements called grain refiners often are added to
gold-based alloys to reduce the grain size (e.g., Ir or Ru in Figure 11-3). The grain structure of
many alloys is far more complex than shown in Figure 11-5 and is highly dependent on the
composition of the alloy. Alloys that are predominately base metals such as nickel generally
have larger grain sizes and grain refiners cannot be used.
The grain structure of an alloy is significantly
altered by mechanical forces. For example, if
the alloy is rolled into a sheet or drawn into a
wire or machined by a cutting instrument, the
grains are disrupted. This type of alloy is called
a wrought alloy and the grain structure takes
on a fibrous appearance (Figure 11-6). Heating
an alloy after casting or mechanical work
changes its grain structure. These changes may
lead to significant changes in properties of the
alloys and clinical problems. For example, if the
springlike qualities of an orthodontic wire rely
on a fibrous grain structure, then overheating
the alloy and altering the fibrous structure will
cause the spring to be weakened. Thus,
operations in dentistry that involve heating,
such as the application of ceramic or soldering,
must be done with consideration for how the
grain structure of the alloy may change.
 Fibrous grain structure of wrought alloys under the light microscope. If a cast
alloy is mechanically worked, it is referred to as a wrought alloy and its grain
structure is altered by breaking up the cast grains (see Figure 11-5) into a
fibrous form seen here. Alloys with a fibrous grain structure are generally
stronger and more brittle than their cast counterparts. Fibrous grain structures
are common in wires used for orthodontics. The scale of the figure is
approximately 500 µm across.
Other important changes in alloy crystal structure are not visible, even under a
microscope. In some dental alloys, how the atoms occupy the crystal lattice of the alloy
is exceedingly important. For example, for an alloy of gold and copper, the alloy will be
considerably stronger if the copper atoms occupy regularly occurring positions in the
crystal lattice (called an ordered crystal structure; see Figure 11-5). The copper atoms
can be induced to change lattice positions depending on how the alloy is cast (or
reheated) and cooled. Thus, for gold-based alloys with appropriate amounts of copper,
heating (to within 100° C of the molten form) and cooling actually may be used to
improve the properties of the alloy. Changes in the order of the atoms in the crystal
lattice are invisible to the eye and even invisible in an electron microscope (they must be
detected by x-ray diffraction). Not all alloys exhibit ordered-structure hardening. For
example, with base-metal alloys, heating and cooling cycles generally deteriorate the
properties of the alloy. Labs use ordered crystal structures to harden or soften some
alloys to a clinical advantage.
carats.
• A carat is the percentage of gold multiplied
by 24 over 100.
• Pure gold is 24 carat so a gold alloy which is
50% gold is 50%Au/100 × 24 = 12 carat.
• Gold content may also be expressed by its
fineness. This is the percentage of gold
multiplied by 10. Pure gold is therefore 1000
fine.
Table 21.2 Elements that are alloyed with gold
for use in dentistry and the effects they impart
to the final alloy
image image
Table 21.3 The four types of gold casting alloy
used in dentistry
image
The properties of noble alloys vary markedly
and this is affects their indications:
• Type I gold alloys are soft and are only used
for small inlays in low-stress areas
• Type IV gold alloy have increased hardness,
tensile strength and yield stress.
Addition of copper: order hardening
The increase in hardness is accompanied by a
decrease in ductility and corrosion resistance.
 DESIRABLE PROPERTIES OF DENTAL CASTING
ALLOYS
• Biocompatibility
• Corrosion resistance
• Tarnish resistance
• Thermal properties
• Melting range
• Compensation for solidification
• Strength requirements
• Castability
• Finishing of cast metal
• Porcelain bonding
Strength
Clearly, one of the many advantages of metal alloys is that they are strong and able to
withstand forces during function without permanent deformation. This allows restorations to
be constructed in thin sections, which in the mouth is advantageous as tooth tissue may be
conserved by minimal tooth preparation.
• Yield strength is the force per unit area (stress) required to permanently deform the alloy.
Exceeding the yield strength is clearly undesirable for dental applications. Yield strength is
therefore a property used to describe the behaviour of an alloy. It is measured in mega
pascals.
• The yield point is defined in as the stress at which a material begins to deform plastically.
Before the yield point the material will deform elastically returning to its original shape when
the stress is removed. Once the yield point is passed a proportion of the deformation will be
permanent and irreversible.
• Related to yield strength is hardness which increases as yield strength increased. This gives
the dentist and dental technician an indication of the difficulty to grind and polish an alloy.
Some metal alloys may be heat treated to increase their hardness.
• Ductility is the ability of an alloy to deform under tensile stress. This is important when
clasps require to be bent and inlays burnished to enhance their fit and marginal adaptation.
The stiffness of the alloy is determined by its elastic modulus and the design of the casting.
Effect of heat on alloys
As alloys are composed of several individual metals, they have a melting range. When an alloy is
cooled, some of it will continue to be in the liquid phase while other parts will start to solidify.
The converse is also true, in that when the alloy is heated, some parts of the alloy will become
molten first. The temperature at which the alloy liquefies on heating is called the liquidus, and
the solidus is the temperature at which it becomes a solid again.
One of the most commonly used fabrication techniques for dental restorations is casting. This
process is described later in the chapter but essentially an ingot of alloy is heated to above its
liquidus and thrown into a mould of the restoration to be constructed. It is important that the
dental technician knows the liquidus temperature of an alloy as it must be heated above this
point to cast properly. The liquidus temperature determines both the casting temperature and
choice of investment material. The dental technician must also know the solidus of the alloy.
This is of particular significance when working with a ceramic bonding alloy, as it must be heated
to a high temperature so that ceramic may be fired onto it. Clearly it must not be heated near to
a point where it starts to become a liquid.
Heat treatments are often utilized in dental technology to enhance the alloy performance. This is
described in more detail later in the chapter. However there is a potential disadvantage to this
technique. Heating and reheating of the alloy may be necessary during the multiple firings
required to add ceramic to the metal substructure. This may be detrimental for the properties of
the alloy, particularly with base metal alloys. A good example of this is stainless steel which
becomes very ductile and loses its strength when it is heated.
Biocompatibility
It is obvious that metal alloys which are used in the mouth must be resistant to corrosion and
tarnish. Clinically this may manifest as an unpleasant metallic taste, irritation or allergy. Nickel
is added to some base metal alloys and is responsible for a hypersensitive reaction in
approximately 12% of females and 7% of males worldwide. Clearly alloys containing a known
allergen should be avoided in patients sensitive to it.
Tarnish: a thin layer of corrosion forming on the surface of metals such as copper, brass, silver,
aluminium and other similar metals as a result of the surface undergoing a chemical reaction.
Tarnish is not necessarily the sole result of contact with oxygen in air. Silver needs hydrogen
sulphide in order to tarnish. Tarnish appears as a dull, grey or black film or coating over metal.
It is a self-limiting surface phenomenon unlike rust. The outer layer of the metal reacts and the
tarnish coating seals and protects the underlying layers from further reaction.
image
At least 10% of the population is sensitive to nickel and patients should be asked about it when
taking the medical history. Females appear to be more prone to hypersensitivity reactions with
nickel and this may be attributable to its extensive use in costume jewellery. Any patient with a
history of hypersensitivity to nickel or other metallic elements should be prescribed alloys
which are free of the allergen. Noble metal alloys are more likely to be biocompatible than
base metal alloys because they are inert.
Tarnish and Corrosion Resistance
As previously discussed in Chapter 3, corrosion is the physical dissolution of a material in
the oral environment and tarnish is a thin film of a surface deposit that is adherent to
the metal surface. Corrosion resistance is derived from the use of noble metals that do
not react in the oral environment (e.g., gold and palladium) or by the ability of one or
more of the metallic elements to form an adherent passivating surface film, which
inhibits any subsurface reaction (e.g., chromium and titanium).
Thermal Properties
The melting range of the casting alloys must be low enough to form smooth surfaces
with the mold wall of the casting investment (Chapter 10). To achieve an accurate fit of
cast prostheses, oversized dies for waxing and controlled mold expansion are needed to
compensate for casting shrinkage of the alloy and provide space for the luting cement.
For metal-ceramic prostheses, the alloys must have closely matching thermal expansion
coefficients to be compatible with given porcelains, and they must tolerate high
processing temperatures without deforming via a creep process.
Strength Requirements
The alloy must have sufficient strength for the intended application. Alloys for
bridgework require higher strength than alloys for single crowns. Alloys for metal-
ceramic prostheses are finished in thin sections and require sufficient stiffness to
prevent excessive elastic deflection from functional forces, especially when they are
used for long-span frameworks.
Fabrication of Cast Prostheses and Frameworks
The molten alloy should flow freely into the most intricate regions of the investment
mold, without any appreciable interaction with the investment material, and wet the
mold surface without forming porosity within the surface or subsurface regions of the
alloy. This property is also termed castability, which is measured by percent completion of
a cast mesh screen pattern or other castability patterns. The selection of an investment
material suitable for the metal to be cast is critical.
Cutting, grinding, finishing, and polishing are necessary steps in obtaining a prosthesis
with a satisfactory surface finish. The hardness of an alloy is a good primary indicator of
the likely difficulty of cutting and grinding it.
Porcelain Bonding
To achieve a sound chemical bond to ceramic veneering materials, the alloy must be able
to form a thin adherent oxide, preferably one that is light in color so that it does not
interfere with the esthetic potential of the ceramic.
Functional Mechanical Properties of Casting Alloys
The strength of an alloy is an important factor in ensuring that the prosthesis for
which it is used will serve its intended functions effectively, safely, and for a
reasonable time (Chapter 4). In a general sense, mechanical properties are the
measured responses of materials under an applied force or distribution of forces,
such as elastic deformation, plastic deformation, or a combination of both. The
level of strength needed depends on the intended categories of application and
types of prostheses to be made. The following are important functional
characteristics of casting alloys.
image Critical Questions
What are two clinical disadvantages of cast metals that have lower elastic moduli?
image Critical Question
Why does a long-span bridge require alloys of high elastic modulus?
Elastic Modulus
This property represents a proportional constant between stress and strain during the elastic
deformation of a material. One characteristic of a material with high elastic modulus is its rigidity
or stiffness. For a dental prosthesis, it is equivalent to its flexure resistance. For long-span FDPs,
resistantce to flexure is important. When such a prosthesis flexes during loading of the pontic,
the mesiodistal bending moment exerted on the abutment teeth can act as a dislodging force,
lifting the mesial and distal aspects of the prosthesis. Furthermore, a flexing bridge can induce
lateral forces on the abutment teeth, resulting in the loosening of teeth. For a metal-ceramic
prosthesis, the overlying brittle porcelain will fail catastrophically when the metal substructure
flexes beyond the flexural strength limit of the ceramic. Elastic modulus is also important for the
major connectors of removable partial dentures, which must have enough rigidity to prevent
flexure during placement and function of the prosthesis. Resistance to flexure also allows clasps
to fit into areas of minimal undercuts and still provide adequate retention.
The elastic moduli of base metal alloys, excluding titanium alloys, are up to twice as high as
those for some popular noble metal alloys. This is not considered a major disadvantage for noble
metal alloys if proper geometries are employed for the framework connectors. The deflection of
a cantilever beam is inversely proportional to t3E, where t is the beam thickness in the plane of
bending and E is the elastic modulus. Calculations show that increasing the thickness of the gold
alloy connector by 26% yields the same resistance to bending stress as a base metal alloy
connector. For a circular cross section, the diameter must increase by 19% to achieve the same
degree of stiffness.
image Critical Question
Why is it that a cast metal prosthesis that is subjected to tensile stress above its yield strength
will not necessarily fracture?
Yield Strength
The yield strength, proportional limit, and elastic limit all are essentially measures of the same
property under tension (Chapter 4). It is important to note the difference between these three
properties. Yield strength is defined as the amount of stress needed to cause 0.2% plastic
deformation of the material, which is why it is also called 0.2% offset yield strength.
Proportional limit is the elastic stress above which the linear relationship between stress and
strain no longer exists on the stress-strain plot. The elastic limit is the greatest stress to which
the alloy can be subjected, such that it will return to its original dimensions when the forces
are removed. Both yield strength and proportional limit can easily be located on the stress-
strain curve, but elastic limit cannot be identified precisely.
Yield strength reflects the capacity of a cast prosthesis to withstand mechanical stresses
without permanent deformation. Ideally, the alloys should have a high yield strength, so that a
great deal of stress must be applied before a permanent change in dimensions occurs.
Generally, alloys with tensile yield strengths above 300 MPa function satisfactorily in the
mouth.
image Critical Question
How does the ductility of a metal increase the fracture resistance of a margin of a cast metal
crown or a clasp arm on a partial denture?
Ductility
This mechanical property represents the amount of plastic deformation under tensile stress
that an alloy can undergo before it fractures. When this tensile strain is converted to a
percent of the original length of the specimen, the property is called percent elongation. If
the force applied is in compressive mode, the property is called malleability. A reasonable
amount of ductility and malleability are essential if the clinical application requires some
plastic deformation of the as-cast structure, as is needed for clasp and margin adjustment
and for burnishing. Some base metal alloys have a ductility higher than that of age-hardened
Au-Cu noble metal alloys. High ductility means that the amount of deformation that one can
produce by adjusting a prosthesis or by burnishing a cast metal margin plastically is higher
for the alloy. In order to burnish an alloy, one must exert a high enough stress that is
sufficient to exceed its yield strength. Therefore, if the alloy with high ductility also has a
high yield strength, the alloy may not achieve the full benefit of high ductility.
image Critical Question
Why is a harder metal more resistant to wear than a softer metal?
Hardness
Hardness is a measure of the resistance of the surface to indentation by an object in the
shape of a spherical or a diamond-shaped point. Hardness of the metal should be high
enough to resist scratching and abrasion and also to maintain the smoothness of the
prosthesis in the oral environment. A hard restoration surface can also cause excessive wear
of the opposing dentition or restoration(s) and requires more energy in grinding and
polishing of the restorations.
An important requirement of inlay and crown and bridge alloys is that they must be easily
burnished by the dentist. One measure of burnishability is the percent elongation divided
by the hardness or yield strength. Some researchers believe that the burnishability of alloys
can be compared by dividing the elongation (ductility) by the product of yield strength and
hardness. This would indicate that the gold alloy would be easier to burnish. The extremely
high hardness of most base metal alloys renders them difficult to cut, grind, and polish.
From a clinician’s point of view, the lower hardness and greater ductility of most noble
alloys are major advantages compared with those of base metal alloys.
Fatigue RESISTANCE
This phenomenon occurs when a material is subjected to repeated loading and
unloading below its elastic limit. Most fractures of prostheses and restorations develop
progressively over many stress cycles. When the load is above a certain threshold, it
initiates cracks from surface flaws of the material. Eventually a crack propagates to a
critical size, and sudden fracture occurs.
Fatigue behavior is often determined experimentally by subjecting a material to a cyclic
stress between two values and determining the number of cycles required to produce
failure. When a removable partial denture is inserted and removed daily, the clasps are
strained elastically as they slide over the undercuts of abutment teeth. A comparison of
number of constant-deflection cycles that caused fracture of cast clasps made of cobalt-
chromium alloy, commercially pure CP Ti, Ti-6Al-4V alloy, and type 4 gold alloy after a
number of constant-deflection cycles that caused fracture of cast clasps has shown that
cobalt-chromium alloys exhibit the highest fatigue resistance, followed by the type 4
gold alloy, Ti-6Al-4V alloy, and CP Ti. Any casting procedure that produces porosity or
that produces carbides in the microstructure of a clasp arm will reduce fatigue
resistance because the former represents internal flaws and the latter reduces the
elongation of the casting.
Other expressions of fatigue fracture resistance include fatigue strength and endurance
limit. Fatigue strength (SNf) is defined as the stress at which failure occurs after Nf
cycles. Endurance limit is the maximum stress that can be maintained without failure
over an infinite number of cycles.
Economic considerations
Inevitably cost is a consideration when the raw materials are expensive, for example
precious metals such as gold. As these elements are traded in the world markets, their
prices may fluctuate widely as their value mirrors financial and political global events. Gold
is a very safe commodity and in times of economic hardship it is often purchased. In a
world of supply and demand, such purchasing practices force the price to rise. This is also
true for other commodities. Before the advert of catalytic converters, when the price of
gold was high, other elements were being used in dental alloys. One such element was
palladium; however, all Japanese car manufactures now require this element to make
catalytic converters for engines designed for using lead-free fuel. Russia as the major
producer of palladium was able to push its price up to reflect demand. The consequence
for dentistry in both examples was that the price of dental alloys increased and therefore
the cost of the final restoration. Many laboratories charge the dentist by the weight of the
metal plus a fee for the construction of the restoration; other laboratories charge a flat fee
irrespective of the metal price. The latter approach may significantly decrease the profit
margin of the laboratory when metal prices rise. Dentists working outwith a third party
(such as an insurance company or the National Health Service (NHS) in the UK) may be
advised to charge the patient the laboratory fee plus a fee for the clinical time so that their
profit margin is not affected by fluctuations in the market.
image
The cost of the prosthesis may influence the decision made by the patient regarding the
restoration that they prefer to have. In order to facilitate this choice, the dentist and their
supplying technician must be clear and transparent with their charging policies.
Types of alloy

The metals used in dental alloys may be divided into two categories: noble and base metals.
Examples of noble metals are gold, platinum, rhodium, ruthenium, iridium and osmium.
Such elements are good for dental use as they are resistant to corrosion in the hostile
environment of the mouth. From a chemistry perspective, silver is a noble metal but as far
as dentistry is concerned it is not considered so because it corrodes in the mouth. These
preceding elements are sometimes referred to as precious metals as they tend to be
expensive. This term can be confusing as it does not refer solely to cost and therefore
should be used carefully. Equally it does not mean noble as in noble elements, as silver and
palladium are not dental precious metals. The term is more descriptive of the physical
properties of the alloy. Nobility of the alloy depends on the sum of the amount of noble
elements contained in it. The American Dental Association has defined alloys as high noble,
noble and base metal alloys
Base metals refer to metals which are not noble, e.g. titanium, nickel,
copper, silver and zinc. These elements corrode more than noble alloys
but are alloyed with noble metals as they have a significant effect on
the properties of the alloy, such as increasing strength, decreasing
flexibility and increasing wear resistance of the alloy.
In dentistry, metals are subdivided into two major groups: noble metals and base metals
(see Figure 11-3). Noble metals are defined by their resistance to corrosion even under
extreme conditions that occur in the oral cavity. There are seven noble metals in the
periodic table, but only three are common in dental casting alloys: gold (periodic table
symbol Au), palladium (Pd), and platinum (Pt). Some metallurgists also consider silver (Ag)
a noble metal, but because of its tendency to corrode in the oral environment, silver is not
considered a noble metal in dentistry. Noble metals are expensive simply because they are
rare. For this reason, noble metals are traded as precious metals in commodities markets.
However, the term precious should not be used to describe dental metals or alloys as this
term indicates only costs on the free market. Furthermore, there are precious metals that
are not noble. The term noble is preferred because it describes an important physical
property of the metal or alloy.
In dentistry, base metals are metals that are not noble metals (see Figure 11-3). In dental
casting alloys, common base metals are titanium (Ti), nickel (Ni), copper (Cu), silver (Ag),
cobalt (Co), and zinc (Zn). Base metals often are mistakenly viewed as being “bad” metals.
In fact, base metals are required in alloys to ensure the strength, flexibility, and wear
resistance necessary for dental restorations. However, in pure form, base metals have a
greater tendency to corrode in the oral environment than noble metals. For this reason,
pure base metals are almost never used for dental restorations. One exception is titanium,
which is used in nearly pure form for endosseous implants (Chapter 15).
In dentistry, metals are subdivided into two
major groups: noble metals and base metals
(see Figure 11-3). Noble metals are defined by
their resistance to corrosion even under
extreme conditions that occur in the oral
cavity. There are seven noble metals in the
periodic table, but only three are common in
dental casting alloys: gold (periodic table
symbol Au), palladium (Pd), and platinum (Pt).
Some metallurgists also consider silver (Ag) a
noble metal, but because of its tendency to
corrode in the oral environment, silver is not
considered a noble metal in dentistry. Noble
metals are expensive simply because they are
rare. For this reason, noble metals are traded
as precious metals in commodities markets.
However, the term precious should not be
used to describe dental metals or alloys as this
term indicates only costs on the free market.
Furthermore, there are precious metals that
are not noble. The term noble is preferred
because it describes an important physical
property of the metal or alloy.
In dentistry, base metals are metals that are
not noble metals (see Figure 11-3). In dental
casting alloys, common base metals are
titanium (Ti), nickel (Ni), copper (Cu), silver
(Ag), cobalt (Co), and zinc (Zn). Base metals
often are mistakenly viewed as being “bad”
metals. In fact, base metals are required in
alloys to ensure the strength, flexibility, and
wear resistance necessary for dental
restorations. However, in pure form, base
metals have a greater tendency to corrode in
the oral environment than noble metals. For
this reason, pure base metals are almost never
used for dental restorations. One exception is
titanium, which is used in nearly pure form for
endosseous implants (Chapter 15).
Base metal alloys contain no gold, platinum or palladium. Their composition and properties
are specified in three ISO standards for alloys. ISO 6871 specifies composition limits and
requirements for dental base metal casting alloys used to construct removable dental
appliances. There are two parts to this standard reflecting the two main groups of materials
used, namely the Co/Cr alloys (part I) and the Ni/Cr alloys (part II). ISO 16744 specifies
requirements for base metal alloys used to construct fixed dental restorations. There is no
provision within this latter standard to further describe alloys according to composition
(except for limiting the quantity of hazardous metals) but greater emphasis is placed upon
classifying materials according to properties and aligning these properties to the four types
of casting gold alloys described in the previous chapter.
Properties
he properties of these alloys vary from one brand to another but typical values are listed in
ables 8.1 and 8.2. The ISO standards for both materials require a minimum of 0.2% proof stress
f 500 MPa and a minimum elongation after fracture of 3%. Hence an ability to withstand
ermanent deformation under stress and a reasonable ductility are deemed to be important
haracteristics of these alloys.
he Co/Cr and Ni/Cr alloys are very hard materials and although this makes the polishing of
astings a difficult process the final polished surface is very durable and resistant to scratching.
n addition, fine margins seem less likely to be lost during finishing of a base metal alloy.
o/Cr and Ni/Cr alloys have very good corrosion resistance by virtue of the passivating effect
see Section 2.7). The alloys are covered with a tenacious thin layer of chromic oxide which
rotects the bulk of the alloy from attack. Unlike chromium-plated metals, which lose their
orrosion resistance if the surface layer becomes scratched, these alloys are permanently
esistant to corrosion since the oxide layer immediately becomes replenished if the surface is
amaged.
able 8.2 Comparative properties of Ni/Cr alloys and type 3 casting gold alloys for cast
estorations.
 CLASSIFICATION OF DENTAL ALLOYS
Dental alloys are classified mainly under 2 categories-

ACCORDING ACCORDING
TO
TO MECHANICAL
NOBILITY PROPERTY
Alloy Classification by Noble Metal Content
In 1984, the American Dental Association (ADA) proposed a simple classification for dental
casting alloys based on the content of noble metals. Three categories were described: high
noble (HN), noble (N), and predominantly base metal (PB). This classification is presented in
Table 16-1. Noble metals comprise a group of seven metals that are resistant to corrosion
and tarnish in the mouth. In order of increasing melting temperature, they include gold,
palladium, platinum, rhodium, ruthenium, iridium, and osmium. Only gold, palladium, and
platinum, which have the lowest melting temperatures of the seven noble metals, are
currently of major importance in dental casting alloys. The noble metals and silver are
sometimes called precious metals, referring to their high economic values, but the term
precious is not synonymous with noble. Silver is reactive in the oral cavity and is not
considered a noble metal.
Alloy Classification by Noble Metal Content—
American Dental Association (1984)
Alloy Type Total Noble Metal Content
High noble (HN) Must contain ≥40% Au and
≥60% by weight of noble metal elements*
Noble (N) Must contain ≥25% by weight of noble
metal elements
Predominantly base metal (PB) Contains
<25% by weight of noble metal elements
*Noble metal elements include Au, Pd, Pt, Rh,
Ru, Ir, and Os.
 Alloy Classification by Mechanical Properties
Over the past few decades base metal alloys have been developed to the point where they
are superior to high noble and noble alloys in several respects, such as low cost and low
density, excellent strength, high stiffness, and stable oxide formation (which is required for
bonding to porcelain). The classification described in ADA specifications and ISO standards
has changed over time.
ADA Specification No. 5 formerly classified gold alloys as types 1 through 4, depending on
the content of gold, palladium, and platinum. The content of noble metals by weight ranges
from 83% (type 1) to 75% (type 4). Both the current ADA Specification No. 5 (1997) and ISO
Standard 1562 (2004) have classified four types of casting alloys using similar minimal yield
strength and percent elongation values for each type of alloy. The only difference is that the
ISO standard is specific for casting gold alloys whereas ADA Specification No. 5 covers all
Mechanical
alloys thatProperty
pass theRequirements Proposed
tests for toxicity in ISOTable
and tarnish. Draft16-2
International Standard 1562
lists the classification andfor
Casting Gold Alloys
mechanical (2002)described in ISO 1562.
properties
TypeDescriptor Yield Strength (MPa) Elongation (%) Examples of Applications
1 Low 80 18 Inlays
2 Medium 180 10 Inlays and onlays
3 Hard270 5 Onlays, thin cast backings, pontics, full crowns, saddles
4 Extra hard 360 3 Saddles, bars, claps, crowns, bridges, and partial denture
frameworks
The more recent ISO 22674 standard classifies metallic materials for fixed and removable
restorations and appliances into six types according to their mechanical properties without
referring to the composition of the alloys (Table 16-3). Although the properties for heat-treated
specimens are not given in the table, it is assumed that the specimens are bench-cooled.
Classification of Metallic Material for Dental Applications—ISO 22674 (2006)*
TypeYield Strength (MPa) Elongation (%) Examples of Applications
0* – – Single-tooth fixed restorations—e.g., small veneered one-surface inlays, veneered
crowns
1 80 18 Single-tooth fixed restorations, veneered or nonveneered one-surface inlays,
veneered crowns
2 180 10 For single-tooth fixed restorations—e.g., crowns or inlays without restriction on
the number of surfaces
3 270 5 For multiple-unit fixed restorations—e.g., bridges
4 360 2 For appliances with thin cross sections that are subjected to very high forces—
e.g., removable partial dentures, clasps, thin veneered crowns, wide-span bridges or bridges
with small cross sections, bars, attachments, implant retained superstructures
5 500 2 For thin removable partial dentures, parts with tin cross sections, clasps
*Metallic materials for metal-ceramic crowns produced by electroforming or sintering belong to
type 0.
Alloy Classification by Principal Elements
Alloys may be classified based on the principal or most abundant element (e.g., a
palladium-based alloy), or they may be named based on the two or three most
important elements (e.g., Pd-Ag, Co-Cr, or Ni-Cr-Be alloys). When an alloy is identified
according to the elements it contains, the components are listed in declining order of
composition, with the largest constituent first followed by the second largest
constituent. An exception to this rule is the identification of certain alloys by elements
that significantly affect physical properties, which represent potential biocompatibility
concerns, or both. For example, Ni-Cr-Mo-Be alloys are often designated as Ni-Cr-Be
alloys because of the contributions of beryllium to the control of castability and surface
oxidation at high temperatures and the relative toxicity potential of beryllium compared
with other metals. Alloy groups shown in Table 16-4 are identified by principal elements.
TABLE 16-4
Alloy Classification by Dental Applications
There are three categories of dental alloys designated by their applications, including all-
metal fixed prostheses, metal-ceramic prostheses, or removable partial dentures. Alloys for
all-metal prostheses are also used as substrates for resin-veneered metal prostheses. As
shown in Table 16-4, each type of alloy by noble metal content (HN, N, and PB) is available
in all three categories. High noble and noble alloys for metal-ceramic prostheses can be
used for all-metal prostheses, whereas those for all-metal restorations are rarely used for
metal-ceramic restorations. The reasons are as follows: (1) the alloys may not form thin,
stable oxides required for porcelain bonding; (2) their melting range may be too low to
resist deformation or melting at porcelain-firing temperatures; and (3) their thermal
contraction coefficients may not be close enough to those of commercial porcelains. The
introduction of ultralow-fusion high-expansion porcelains, which sinter below 850 °C, has
led to the use of some yellow-colored, high gold alloys that can be veneered with porcelain.
There is a group of high gold-containing alloys that are designated for both all-metal and
metal-ceramic applications.
Base metal alloys, on the other hand, are often marketed for both all-metal and metal-
ceramic prostheses because of their oxide formation at room temperature. In this chapter,
dental alloys are discussed by their applications.
 ADA COUNCIL in March 2003 added Titanium alloys to
the classification-
Revised Classification System for Alloys for Fixed Prosthodontics

Classification Requirement

Noble Metal Content ≥ 60% (gold+

High Noble Alloys platinum group*)
and gold ≥ 40%

Titanium and Titanium Alloys Titanium ≥ 85%

Noble Metal Content ≥ 25% (gold +

Noble Alloys platinum group*)

Noble Metal Content < 25% (gold +

Predominantly Base Alloys platinum group*)
 Casting alloys for tooth restorations
Some cast restorations such as inlays, onlays,
some crowns and bridges are composed solely
of metal (Figure 21.3). The vast majority of
these restorations are constructed out of noble
alloys but in certain situations the clinician may
prescribe the use of a base metal alloy. Both
these types of alloy may also be used for
bonding to dental ceramic to construct tooth-
coloured restorations. To optimize the union
between the alloy and ceramic, the
constituents of these alloys may be varied (see
later).

A full metal crown manufactured by casting.

This type of restoration may be made out of
noble or base metal alloy.
ALLOYS FOR ALL METAL FPDs
High Noble and Noble Alloys
For prosthetic dental applications, it is necessary to incorporate various elements in gold to
produce alloys with suitable properties. Platinum increases the hardness and elasticity of gold
and raises the melting temperature of the alloy. When palladium became expensive in the late
1990s, platinum was used in place of palladium. Copper in a sufficient quantity relative to the
gold content renders the alloy heat-treatable (Chapter 5). Silver forms solid solutions with gold
and palladium and is a common component in this group of alloys. In gold-copper (Au-Cu)
alloys, silver is effective in neutralizing the reddish color of copper. In the case of palladium-
based alloys, silver is needed to develop the white color of the alloys. Palladium has a good
range of solubility with several metals, such as gold, silver, and copper, and an ability to impart
good mechanical properties. It has excellent tarnish/corrosion resistance and is relatively
biocompatible. It has also been incorporated in small quantities (about 1.5% by weight) in gold
alloys to improve resistance to tarnish and corrosion without a significant loss of gold color.
Zinc acts as an oxygen scavenger during melting and casting of noble and high noble alloys.
Indium can be used in place of zinc and, when added in greater amounts (18% to 30% by
weight), it can promote a gold-like color in Pd-Ag-based alloys. Iridium or ruthenium is added
in small quantities as a grain refiner, since smaller grains improve yield strength.
The compositions of selected high noble and noble alloys are given in Table 16-5. Their physical
and mechanical properties are shown in Table 16-6. Since some noble metals contain no gold
and rely on palladium for corrosion resistance, these alloys are discussed in two categories: Au-
based alloys and Ag-Pd alloys.
Gold-Based Alloys
These alloys are generally yellow in color (see Table 16-5). Type 1 gold alloys are soft and
designed for inlays supported by teeth and not subjected to significant mastication forces. Type
2 alloys are widely used for inlays because of their superior mechanical properties, but they have
less ductility than type 1 alloys. Type 3 alloys are used for constructing crowns and onlays for
high-stress areas. Increasing the Pt or Pd content raises the melting temperature, which is
beneficial when components are to be joined by soldering (or brazing). Type 4 gold alloys are
used in high-stress areas such as bridges and partial denture frameworks. The cast alloy must be
rigid to resist flexure, possess high yield strength to prevent permanent distortion, and be
ductile enough for adjustment if the clasp of a framework has been distorted or needs
adjustment.
Changes of alloy color caused by the reduction in gold content are compensated for by an
increase in copper, silver, and palladium. Higher silver and copper content reduces the corrosion
resistance of these alloys. These reduced gold alloys have moderate moduli of elasticity but a
higher hardness and yield strength than their high noble counterparts.
image Critical Questions
Why must Type 3 and Type 4 gold-copper alloys be softened by a heat treatment before they are
hardened by another heat treatment? What effects can the cooling rate of a heat treated Type 3
gold-copper alloy have on its hardness and ductility?
image Critical Question
What happens within gold-copper alloys when subjected to a prescribed heating-cooling cycle?
GOLD AND GOLD BASED
ALLOYS
 Gold content of an alloy may be measured in
carats.
• A carat is the percentage of gold multiplied
by 24 over 100.
• Pure gold is 24 carat so a gold alloy which is
50% gold is 50%Au/100 × 24 = 12 carat.
• Gold content may also be expressed by its
fineness. This is the percentage of gold
multiplied by 10. Pure gold is therefore 1000
fine.
Addition of copper: order hardening
The increase in hardness is accompanied by a decrease in ductility and corrosion resistance.
The element mainly responsible for this is copper. Copper conveys order hardening to the
alloy. This is where the copper atoms form ordered clusters instead of being randomly
distributed within the alloy. This ordered atomic structure prevents movement or slippage of
the layers of atoms. For this phenomenon to occur the alloy must contain at least 11% copper
and so some effect will be seen in type III gold alloys although it is seen more so with type IV.
The amount of copper added works only up to a point as the alloy will tarnish if it contains
more than 16% copper. Order hardening may be achieved by heating the alloy to 400 °C and
holding it in the furnace at this temperature for 30 minutes.
A gold alloy may be softened by the same process. The temperature is higher than that used
for order hardening and the alloy is cooled quickly by quenching.
Other constituents
Platinum and palladium have similar effects on the properties of the final gold alloy. Their
inclusion in the alloy leads to a higher melting point. This may be advantageous if the alloy
requires to be soldered at some point, for example to join bridge components together if the
technician is concerned that a large casting may not be dimensionally accurate enough if cast
as one unit.
Zinc is included as a scavenger of oxygen as it will preferentially react with oxygen so
preventing oxidation of the other components. It is relatively reactive and pure zinc will take
up oxygen to passivate the surface. It is included in noble metal alloys for the same reason as
in dental amalgam (see Chapter 6).
Iridium and ruthenium are primarily used to assist in corrosion resistance. They are
incorporated in very small quantities.
Indications
There are several indications for prescribing a cast gold restoration:
• Gold alloys are very strong in thin section. This means that the dentist may consider providing
a gold restoration where there is little interocclusal clearance. More tooth tissue may be
conserved as it need not be sacrificed in favour of accommodating the dental material. The
minimum thickness of a gold alloy should be 1 mm and 1.5 mm over a functional cusp.
• Cast gold restorations function well in the mouth as their wear resistance is the same as
enamel; thus differential wear will not occur on opposing teeth.
• They are durable in function and have a good longevity.
• Gold alloys are dimensionally very accurate as little change occurs in this respect during their
construction using the lost wax technique. This minimizes chairside time as less adjustment
should be required at the fit appointment.
• If any adjustment is required at the chairside, gold alloys may be relatively easily polished by
the dentist prior to fitting. Unlike ceramic, the gold restoration does not need to be returned to
the dental laboratory to be finished should any chairside adjustment be required.
• The patient may elect to have a gold restoration for a variety of reasons: the use of gold to
restore anterior teeth is more popular in some cultures, or on the recommendation of their
dentist for one or more of the reasons listed above.
Contraindications
Although cast gold has many advantages and indications, it is not suitable in every case or for
every patient. The contraindications are as follows:
• The primary dental disease should be under control and stable, that is the patient’s caries
rate/risk must be low and their oral hygiene good. Therefore those patients who have a high
caries rate and are unable (or unwilling) to maintain a good level of oral hygiene are unsuitable
for gold alloy restorations.
• Gold alloy restorations may be contraindicated in some patients on grounds of cost. To have a
gold restoration prepared, constructed and fitted requires a minimum of two surgery
appointments and a laboratory bill. The price of gold, even at a low level, can be considerable.
• Many patients decline gold restorations as they do not like the appearance of gold and may
prefer a tooth-coloured restoration. This problem can be overcome by sandblasting the
‘polished’ surface of the gold, which has the effect of decreasing the shine or ‘glint’ of the gold.
This may be a satisfactory solution for some patients (Figure 21.4).
A full gold crown, half (right side) of which has
been sandblasted with 50 μm alumina while
the other half (left side) has been polished to
illustrate the difference in appearance between
these treatments. The sandblasted surface
reduces the glint of the gold when the patient
smiles.
 the dentist to bond such restoration
veneers or onlays on to tooth tissue
Bonding gold alloys to tooth tissue particularly where little or no mech
Restorations constructed out of gold alloys are retention exists. The dentist should
usually luted into or onto the preparation. Gold and clearly request this treatment o
alloy itself has no inherent ability to chemically laboratory prescription form if a bon
bond to tooth tissue. However, it may be technique is going to being employe
treated so that it can bond to tooth tissue with Additional, albeit limited, micromec
the use of an adhesive resin-based cement. If retention may be gained by sandbla
the gold alloy contains more than 16% copper, fitting surface of the gold alloy. Both
it may be heat treated by putting it in the techniques may be combined to pro
furnace at 400 °C for 9 minutes. This forms a most secure method. In this case, th
surface oxide layer of copper oxide, to which surface is firstly sandblasted followe
the resin based adhesive may bond heat treatment prior to dispatch to
image
The fitting surface of a gold onlay which has
been heat treated so that the restoration may
be bonded onto the tooth surface with the use
of a resin-based adhesive cement. Note the
darkened surface of the gold alloy, which is
now rich in copper oxide and which permits
chemical bonding.
When laboratory work is returned to the
dental surgery, it will be contaminated with
bacteria. It is therefore important that the
appropriate disinfection regime is followed
prior to trying in of the prosthesis in the mouth
of the patient. All metal and metal-ceramic
restorations may be placed in the autoclave
and subjected to a normal cycle. This will have
no detrimental effect on any surface oxide
layer created on gold or non-precious
metalwork. For wax and plastics and other low
melting point materials, alternative means of
disinfection such as immersion in a cold
sterilization solution should be considered.
However, note that pre-silanated ceramic
restorations cannot be disinfected by heating
as this will break down the silane layer,
compromising the bond gained between the
ceramic and the resin cement.
Alternative metal alloys used for metal crowns
The more commonly used alternatives to gold alloys are the silver alloys.
Cast base metal alloys are infrequently used to construct all-metal
restorations unless cost is a very significant factor. Base metal alloys are
more commonly used in the construction of resin-retained bridges and as
bonding alloys.
Chemical constituents of alternative metal alloys and their functions
• Common alloys used as an alternative to those containing gold are the
silver-palladium and silver-platinum-copper alloys. These usually contain
60–70% silver, 25% palladium and up to 15% copper.
• A nickel-chromium or cobalt-chromium alloy may also be used as a
cheaper alternative.
image Nickel-chromium alloys have between 60% and 78% nickel and 10–
12% chromium, with the difference being made up with molybdenum.
image Cobalt-chromium alloys usually have about 55% cobalt and 27–30%
chromium, and the bulk of the remainder is made of molybdenum as for
the nickel alloys.
Properties
Silver alloys have a major disadvantage in that they tarnish and corrode.
They have variable properties and care must be taken in the selection
as some are quite ductile and are unsuitable for use in load-bearing
areas of the mouth.
Base metal alloys tend to have larger grain sizes and do not include
grain refiners. They are stronger than the noble alloys. Additionally,
they are also harder and their ductility is reduced. This means that they
may be used in a thinner section and still possess sufficient strength for
function. These alloys may be used in a thickness as low as 0.3 mm. The
increased hardness of base metal alloys also imparts greater wear
resistance, but it can lead to potential wear of opposing tooth tissue.
Base metal alloys are harder to adjust, finish and polish due to their
hardness and lack of ductility. Many dental technicians sandblast the
casting to remove any residual investment material and the green oxide
layer. This may help to reduce the surface roughness. Electrolytic
polishing may be used in preference to polishing and finishing these
alloys by traditional means (see Chapter 19). However, many
technicians believe that base metal alloys may be finished as well as
noble alloys even though it takes longer to achieve and requires more
work!
If the metal surface of an indirect restoration
requires adjustment, measure the thickness of
the metal to be adjusted prior to making the
adjustment by using an Iwannson gauge. This
will prevent inadvertent perforation of the
surface being adjusted

Fig. 21.6 An Iwannson gauge measuring the

occlusal thickness of a crown prior to
adjustment of the occlusal surface.
Commercially available products
Table 21.4 show some commonly used casting
alloys currently available on the market. It is
clear from Table 21.4 that alloys of different
composition can have similar melting ranges
and casting temperatures. Care needs to be
exercised in their selection. It is wise to
establish a dialogue between dentist and
technician so that the dental team can
determine which alloy should be used in any
particular case.
 HEAT TREATMENT OF GOLD CASTING ALLOYS

• Mechanical properties of gold alloys can be

altered through heat treatment
• Gold alloys can be significantly hardened if alloy
contains sufficient amount of copper(type III &
IV)
• Criteria for successful hardening-time and
temperature.
• Two types of heat t/t-Softening heat t/t
-Hardening heat t/t
Heat Treatment of Gold-Copper Alloys
To soften the alloy, the casting is placed in a furnace for 10 minutes at 700 °C and then
quenched in water. All intermediate phases in the alloy are changed to a disordered solid
solution at 700 °C, and the rapid quenching prevents ordering from occurring during cooling.
The tensile strength, proportional limit, and hardness are reduced by such a treatment, and the
ductility is increased. To harden the alloy, the temperature of the furnace is set between 200 °C
and 450 °C and the casting is heated for 15 to 30 minutes before it is quenched in water. Ideally,
before the alloy is age-hardened, it should be subjected to a softening heat treatment to relieve
all residual strain hardening (Chapter 17) before the alloy is hardened again by heat treatment
to produce a disordered solid solution. Otherwise the amount of solid-state transformation will
not be properly controlled. In metallurgical terminology, the softening heat treatment is referred
to as a solution heat treatment and the hardening heat treatment is termed age hardening.
Mechanical properties of both the softened and age-hardened states are shown in Table 16-6.
The softening heat treatment is indicated for structures that are ground or reshaped plastically
to a different form, either in or out of the mouth. Because the proportional limit is increased
during age hardening, a considerable increase in the modulus of resilience can be expected. The
hardening heat treatment is indicated for metallic partial dentures, saddles, FDPs, and other
similar structures where rigidity of the prosthesis is needed. For small structures, such as inlays,
a hardening treatment is not usually required. Age hardening reduces the ductility of gold alloys.
A reasonable amount of ductility is essential if the clinical application requires some permanent
deformation of the as-cast structure, as is needed for clasp and margin adjustment and for
burnishing.
image Critical Question
What characteristics of palladium make it a natural choice of element to replace gold for dental
alloys?
 SILVER-PALLADIUM ALLOYS

• White
• Composition-predominately silver & at least
25% Pd
• Pd provides tarnish resistance
• May or may not contain copper and small
amount of gold
• 70-72%Ag + 25%Pd = Type III Gold alloys
• 60%Ag + 25%Pd + 15%Cu = Type IV Gold alloys
Silver-Palladium Alloys
These alloys are white and predominantly silver in composition, but they contain at least 25%
of palladium to provide nobility and increase the tarnish resistance of the alloy. They may also
contain copper and a small amount of gold. Casting temperatures are in the range of those for
yellow gold alloys. The copper-free Ag-Pd alloys may have physical properties similar to those
of a type 3 gold alloy. With 15% or more copper, the alloy may have properties more like those
of a type 4 gold alloy. Despite reports of poor castability because of the lower density and
propensity of dissolving oxygen in the molten-state, Ag-Pd alloys can produce acceptable
castings when close attention is paid to precise control of the casting and mold temperatures.
The major limitation of Ag-Pd alloys in general and in the Ag-Pd-Cu alloys in particular is their
greater potential for tarnish and corrosion. The amount of corrosion expected during service is
negligible if the palladium content is greater than 25%.
By melting palladium and indium at the composition of 50% In and 50% Pd in atomic percent
(52% In and 48% Pd by weight), the alloy is copper colored but increasing the palladium
content causes the alloy to lose its reddish color and acquire a gold color. A minimum of 15%
by weight of Pd-In intermetallic compound is needed to maintain the yellowish color. A much
higher proportion of Pd-In intermetallic compound is used in commercial dental alloys (see
Table 16-5). The tarnish resistance of the alloys is especially dependent upon the composition
and the integrity of the casting. The colored phase of the Pd-In binary alloy system is hard and
brittle and is not a strenghener. Silver, copper, and/or gold can be added to increase the
ductility and improve the castability of the alloy for dental applications.
image Critical Questions
What is the role of chromium in predominantly base metal alloys? How does beryllium
improve the properties of nickel-based metal alloys?
 NICKEL CHROMIUM AND COBALT
CHROMIUM ALLOYS
• Rarely used for all metal restorations
• Nickel haslimited application in gold and palladium
alloy
• Common component in non-noble dental alloys
• Used in small quantities in gold based alloys to
whiten and increase strength and hardness of alloy
Predominantly Base Metals
Base metal alloys generally comprise the group of cast metals that rely on chromium for
corrosion resistance. Chromium on the surface of the alloy rapidly oxidizes to form a thin layer
of chromium oxide, which prevents the diffusion of oxygen into the underlying metals and
improves its corrosion resistance. Chromium also strengthens the alloy by solution hardening.
Since the introduction of cobalt-chromium alloys as cast dental appliances in 1928 and
subsequent development of nickel-chromium and cobalt-nickel-chromium alloys, base metal
alloys have gained widespread acceptance as the predominant choice for the fabrication of
removable partial denture frameworks. Because of the high cost of noble metals, these base
metals have been adapted also for dual applications such as the production of all-metal and
metal-ceramic prostheses.
Currently there are two main groups of base metal dental alloys: nickel-chromium (Ni-Cr) and
cobalt-chromium (Co-Cr). The Ni-Cr alloys can be further divided into those with and without
beryllium, which improves castability and promotes the formation of a stable metal oxide for
porcelain bonding. The majority of Ni-Cr alloys are for small castings such as crowns and FDPs,
and Co-Cr alloys are primarily used for casting removable partial dentures in which high elastic
modulus and yield strength are needed. Some Ni-Cr alloys, which are used for partial denture
frameworks, are formulated for their relative ease of finishing and polishing compared with
Co-Cr alloys, which are used for crowns and FDPs in spite of their low ductility. Table 16-7 lists
compositions and properties of selected base alloys for all metal and metal–ceramic
applications. Molybdenum increases corrosion resistance and strength and decreases the
thermal expansion coefficient of base metal alloys. The latter is beneficial for porcelain
bonding and minimizes the risk of porcelain cracking or fracture. Base metal alloys for partial
frameworks are discussed later.
 TITANIUM AND TITANIUM ALLOYS

• Use of CPTi and titanium alloys increased significantly

• Used for-all metal and metal ceramic prosthesis
-implants
-removable partial denture frameworks
 Most biocompatible
 Moderately high tensile strength
 High stiffness
 Low thermal expansion coefficient
 High melting point
 Resistance to tarnish and corrosion
 ALUMINIUM BRONZE ALLOY

• Copper based alloy

• Contains 81-88% Cu,7-11%Al,2-4% Ni and 1-4% Fe
• Copper reacts with sulphur to form copper sulfide

Susceptibility to tarnish and corrosion

ALLOYS FOR METAL CERAMIC
FPDs
 METAL CERAMIC PROSTHESIS
Chief objection to use dental porcelain as a
restorative material is its low strength under
tensile and shear stresses

To minimize this,porcelain is bonded

directly to cast alloy

Combines strength and accurate fit of cast

restoration and esthetics of porcelain crown
 METAL CERAMIC ALLOY FEATURES

 Adequate stiffness and strength of alloy

 Coefficient of thermal expansion should be greater
than that of porcelain
 Melting range should be higher than fusing
temperature of porcelain
 Not distort at firing temperature of porcelain
 Ease of use
 Biocompatible
 HIGH NOBLE AND NOBLE ALLOYS
GOLD-PLATINUM-PALLADIUM ALLOYS
• High noble content-good corrosion resistance
• Solid solution hardening(FePt3)
• Original metal ceramic alloys contained 88% Au and were too
soft for stress bearing restorations such ad FPDs because there
was no chemical bonding

To overcome this,less than 1% of oxide forming elements such as

iron,indium and tin are added to achieve a porcelain-metal bond
strength level that surpassed the cohesive strength of porcelain
• Sag potential
• Suited for single units or short span FPDs
GOLD-PALLADIUM-SILVER ALLOYS(LOW SILVER)
• Contains 5-11% Au,thus,economical
• Excellent tarnish and corrosion resistance
• Less technique sensitive associated with porcelain
bonding

Potential for porcelain

discoloration when silver vapor is released an deposited
on porcelain surface
 GOLD-PALLADIUM-SILVER ALLOYS(HIGH SILVER)

• White colored
• Contains 12-22% Ag,39-53%Au and 25-35%Pd
• Low cost
• High Pd content improves resistance to creep

Porcelain discoloration,thus,not used in

lighter shades
 GOLD-PALLADIUM ALLOYS

• Introduced in 1977 by J.F. Jelenko & Co

• Designed to overcome porcelain discoloration
effect(silver-free)
• Low coefficient of thermal expansion
• Excellent castability,corrosion resistance and
adherence to porcelain
• White
• Moderately priced
 PALLADIUM –GOLD ALLOYS

• Few products available

• No porcelain discoloration
• Physical properties similar to Au-Pd alloys

PALLADIUM-GOLD-SILVER ALLOYS
• Similar to Au-Pd-Ag alloys
• Contains Ag-5 to 32% and Ag-6 to 14%
• Porcelain discolaration
 PALLADIUM-SILVER ALLOYS

• Introduced in 1974 as first gold-free alloys available

for metal-ceramic restorations
• 53-61% Pd and 28-40% Ag
• Tin or indium added to increase hardness and
promotes oxide formation for adequate porcelain
bonding
• Economical
• Easy to grind and polish
Severe porcelain discoloration
 PALLADIUM-COPPER-GALLIUM ALLOYS
• Popular in 1990s
• Potential effect on esthetics of dark brown or black oxide
formed during oxidation and subsequent porcelain firing
cycles

PALLADIUM-GALLIUM-SILVER ALLOYS

• They tend to have lighter oxides than above alloys

• Thermally compatible with lower expansion porcelains
• Low hardness thus east to burnish and polish
• Have low silver content-less porcelain discoloration
 BASE METAL ALLOYS
NICKEL-CHROMIUM AND COBALT-CHROMIUM ALLOYS
• Became popular in 1980sas low cost metals
• Highly corrosion resistance
• Inexpensive
• High elastic modulus,high hardness and high elongation
• Ni-Cr-Be alloys have retained their popularity despite of
potential toxicity of beryllium and allergic potential of
Nickel
• Alloys such as Ticonium used in RPD framework for
many yrs with few reports of allergic potential
 Biocompatibility of dental casting alloys: A review***
John C.WatahaDMD, PhDa
Statement Of Problem. Dental casting alloys are widely used in applications that place them into contact with
oral tissues for many years. With the development of new dental alloys over the past 15 years, many
questions remain about their biologic safety. Practitioners must choose among hundreds of alloy
compositions, often without regard to biologic properties. Purpose. This article is an evidence-based tutorial
for clinicians. Concepts and current issues relevant to the biologic effects of dental casting alloys are
presented.

Summary. The single most relevant property of a casting alloy to its biologic safety is its corrosion. Systemic
and local toxicity, allergy, and carcinogenicity all result from elements in the alloy being released into the
mouth during corrosion. Little evidence supports concerns of casting alloys causing systemic toxicity. The
occurrence of local toxic effects (adjacent to the alloy) is not well documented, but is a higher risk, primarily
because local tissues are exposed to much higher concentrations of released metal ions. Several elements
such as nickel and cobalt have relatively high potential to cause allergy, but the true risk of using alloys
containing these elements remains undefined. Prudence dictates that alloys containing these elements be
avoided if possible. Several elements in casting alloys are known mutagens, and a few such as beryllium and
cadmium are known carcinogens in different chemical forms. Despite these facts, carcinogenic effects from
dental casting alloys have not been demonstrated. Prudent practitioners should avoid alloys containing these
known carcinogens.

Conclusion. To minimize biologic risks, dentists should select alloys that have the lowest release of elements
(lowest corrosion). This goal can be achieved by using high-noble or noble alloys with single-phase
microstructures. However, there are exceptions to this generality, and selection of an alloy should be made
on a case-by-case basis using corrosion and biologic data from dental manufacturers. (J Prosthet Dent
2000;83:223-34.)
Artifacts from Dental Casting Alloys in Magnetic Resonance Imaging
Show all authors
F. Shafiei1*2, E. Honda23, H. Takahashi1, ...
First Published August 1, 2003 Others

The potential advantage of magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) has been limited by
artifacts due to the presence of metallic materials. For quantitative evaluation of
the magnitude of artifacts from dental casting alloys and implant materials in MR
imaging, 11 dental casting or implant materials were imaged by means of 1.5 T MRI
apparatus with three different sequences. Mean and standard deviation of water
signal intensity (SI) around the sample in the region of interest (1200 mm2) were
determined, and the coefficient of variation was compared for evaluation of the
homogeneity of the SI. A variety of artifacts with different magnitudes was
observed. Only one of the samples, composed mainly of Pd, In, and Sb, showed no
artifacts in all imaging sequences. We concluded that selection of specific dental
casting alloys according to their elemental compositions could minimize the metal
artifacts in MRI; however, titanium alloys currently pose a problem with respect to
causing MRI artifacts.
 Penetration depth into dental casting alloys by Nd:YAG laser
Authors
N. Baba,
I. Watanabe
First published: 9 August 2004

This study investigated the effect of laser-beam welding conditions [voltage (V) and spot
diameter (mm)] on the penetration depth into dental casting alloys. Castings (3.0 mm ×
8.0 mm × 50 mm) were prepared from the metals used in this study: commercially pure
titanium (CP Ti), Ti-6Al-4V, Ti-6Al-7Nb, cobalt–chromium alloy (Co–Cr) and Type IV gold
alloy. Two cast blocks of each metal were butted against one another at the 8.0 × 50-mm
surfaces. They were then welded at their interface under the following conditions: voltage
of 160–340 V, spot diameter of 0.4–1.6 mm, and pulse duration of 10 ms. After laser
welding, the blocks were separated, and the penetration depth into each alloy was
measured. The data were analyzed with the use of ANOVA at the p < 0.05 level of
significance. The penetration depths were as follows: CP Ti (0.29–6.45 mm), Ti-6Al-4V
(0.32–5.24 mm), Ti-6Al-7Nb (0.34–5.65 mm), Co–Cr (0.24–6.15 mm), and Type IV gold
alloy (0.12–5.22 mm). The voltage and spot diameter affected the penetration depth into
the metals tested. When the voltage increased and the spot diameter decreased, the
penetration depth increased for each metal. Selecting suitable conditions for laser
welding to obtain sufficient penetration depth for the optimal thickness of the metal is
important when welding prostheses. © 2004 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Biomed Mater Res
Part B: Appl Biomater 72B: 64–68, 2005
Effect of chemical composition on the corrosion behavior of Ni-Cr-Mo dental casting
alloys
Authors
Her-Hsiung Huang
First published: 22 February 2002
The objective of this investigation was to study the compositional influence on the
corrosion behavior of Ni-Cr-Mo dental casting alloys in acidic artificial saliva. Cyclic
potentiodynamic and potentiostatic tests were used to evaluate the corrosion behavior
of different Ni-Cr-Mo dental casting alloys in deaerated artificial saliva with pH 5 at
37°C. Optical microscope observations were made following the cyclic potentiodynamic
tests. Surface chemical analyses were characterized by X-ray photoelectron
spectroscopy and auger electron spectroscopy following the potentiostatic tests. The
results show that the corrosion resistance of the Ni-Cr-Mo casting alloys investigated is
associated with the formation of passive film containing Ni(OH)2, NiO, Cr2O3, and
MoO3, on the surface. The pitting potential and passive range, respectively, were
statistically different among the different Ni-Cr-Mo alloys. The Ni-Cr-Mo alloys with
higher Cr (≈21%) and Mo (≈8%) contents had a much larger passive range in the
polarization curve and were immune to pitting corrosion due to the presence of high Cr
(maximum ≈31–35%) and Mo (maximum ≈12%) contents in the surface passive film.
The presence of Ti lower than 4% in the Ni-Cr-Mo casting alloy had no effect on
corrosion resistance. A pitting resistance equivalent (PRE) of about 49 could provide the
Ni-Cr-Mo alloy with a good pitting corrosion resistance. © 2002 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J
Biomed Mater Res 60: 458–465, 2002; DOI 10.1002/jbm.10080
Elements Released from Dental Casting Alloys and Their Cytotoxic Effects.
Source: International Journal of Prosthodontics . Sep/Oct2002, Vol. 15 Issue 5, p473-478.
6p. 3 Charts, 1 Graph.
Author(s): Al-Hiyasat, Ahmad S.; Bashabsheh, Omar M.; Darmani, Homa
Purpose: This in vitro study investigated the element release from seven commercially
available dental casting alloys and tested their cytotoxic effects. Materials and Methods:
The casting alloys tested were one high-noble alloy (Bioherador N) and six base-metal
alloys, including four Ni-Cr alloys (Remanium CS, Heranium NA, Wiron 99, CB Soft), one Co-
Cr alloy (Wirobond C), and one Cu-based alloy (Thermobond). Ten specimens from each
alloy were prepared in the form of disks, and each of the seven dental casting alloys (10
disks per group) were conditioned in distilled water at 37°C for either 72 or 168 hours. The
conditioning media were analyzed for element release, and the cytotoxic effects were
assessed on Balb C fibroblasts using MTT assay.
Results: Element release was greater at 168 hours of conditioning than at 72 hours. The
extract from the high-noble alloy showed the least amount of element release (only Zn),
with no cytotoxic effects. The greatest amount of element release was detected in the Cu-
based alloy Thermobond and the Ni-Cr alloy CB Soft; their extracts were significantly more
toxic than all the other alloy extracts. The cytotoxic effects of the other Ni-Cr alloy extracts
were not statistically significantly different from the high-noble alloy extract. However, the
Co-Cr alloy (Wirobond C) extract was significantly more cytotoxic than the high-noble alloy
extract. Conclusion: Element release from casting alloys is proportional to the conditioning
time. The content of Cr and Mo in the alloy protects the alloy from dissolution, while the Cu
content makes it more susceptible to corrosion and dissolution, rendering it more cytotoxic.
Assessment of Nickel Release from Stainless Steel Crowns
Nahid Ramazani,1 Rahil Ahmadi,2 and Mansure Darijani3

Purpose of Study:The purpose of this study was to determine the amount of nickel
released from stainless steel crowns in artificial saliva.

Materials and Methods:In this in-vitro study, 270 stainless steel crowns were divided into
five groups, each with nine subgroups. Each group (I to V) was comprised of four, five, six,
seven and eight crowns, respectively. Each subgroup was placed in a polyethylene jar
containing artificial saliva and held in an incubator at 37°C for four weeks. The amount of
released nickel was determined on days 1, 7, 14, 21 and 28, using an atomic absorption
spectrophotometer. Wilcoxon Signed-Rank and Kruskal-Wallis with Dunn’s post hoc tests
(SPSS software, v. 18) were used for statistical analysis at a significance level of 0.05.

Results:The mean level of nickel on day 1 was more than that of day 7; this difference was
statistically significant for all groups (P < 0.05), except for group II (P = 0.086). Also, the
mean difference of released nickel between the groups was significant on day 1 (P =
0.006) and was insignificant on day 7 (P = 0.620). The nickel levels were zero on days 14,
21, and 28.

Conclusion:The amount of nickel was below the toxic level and did not exceed the dietary
intake.
Allergic reactions associated with metal alloys in porcelain-fused-to-metal fixed prosthodontic
devices-A systematic review.Levi L1, Barak S, Katz J.

OBJECTIVE:To systematically review the allergic reactions associated with metal alloys in
porcelain-fused-to-metal (PFM) fixed prosthetic devices.

METHOD AND MATERIALS:After reviewing the titles and abstracts of the articles as well as
removing duplicates, 22 articles were considered relevant. PubMed, Web of Science,
ScienceDirect, and Google Scholar from 1970 to 2012 were evaluated, and randomized studies,
review articles, case reports, cross-sectional surveys, and abstracts were included. Conference
papers and posters were excluded.
RESULTS:Although reported, allergic reactions to metallic alloys in the context of PFM devices
are not well documented. Allergic reactions to high noble and noble metal alloy cores of
palladium and gold and to base metal alloys nickel and cobalt in the context of PFM fixed partial
dentures (FPDs) are reported. Each type of metal is associated with a different rate of allergic
reactions, which may be attributed to the extent of corrosion of the alloy, population exposure,
and the biologic environment. Because few studies document allergic reactions to metals that
comprise PFM crowns and partial dentures, further research in this field is necessary to
determine the frequency and type of reactions elicited.
CONCLUSION:Though allergic reactions to metal alloys used in dentistry are well documented,
only few articles focus on the correlation between FPDs and metal allergies. Thus, this paper
surveys case reports of hypersensitivity reactions linked to FPDs and reviews the current
literature on allergic reactions to the metallic elements comprising those devices.