GEOTECHNICAL AND GEOENVIRONMENTAL

ENGINEERING

Part 1:
Soil Compaction
Nilo Cesar Consoli
PPGEC-UFRGS
Compaction: 1
 What is Soil Compaction?
 Compaction is the densification of soils by the application of
mechanical energy to reduce air void spaces in the three
phase soil model
 it reduces the air content, but not the water content
 can’t compact saturated soil (almost always true)
 Compaction refers to the mechanical “bashing together” of
unsaturated soil to form a denser soil
 Do not confuse soil compaction with consolidation (long term
reduction of void ratio of a given soil).
 Consolidation refers to slow squeezing out water from a saturated
soil, by application of a static load
 Principal difference:
 Compaction is direct & immediate
 Consolidation is a time-dependent process
Compaction: 2
 Where/when is Compaction Used
 Any time soil is used as a construction material, it is
compacted to improve its engineering properties:
 compaction of sand pad for house foundations
 compaction of soil/gravel/crushed rock/asphalt in road construction
 compaction of soil in earth dams
 compaction of soil behind retaining walls
 compaction of soil backfill in trenches
 In this unit, compaction will be referred to in:
 pavement construction
 dam construction
 construction of clay liners for waste storage areas
 construction of tailings dams
 ground improvement

Compaction: 3
 What does compaction achieve
 At most basic level, compaction increases the dry unit weight
 For soil containing (clayey) fines, well-compacted soil has
high negative pore pressures (suctions)
 high effective stress, even when at ground surface
 high strength
 Good compaction results in:
 higher stiffness (less compressible = less settlement)
 higher strength = higher bearing capacity
 reduced permeability (more later...)

Compaction: 4
 Type of Soil and Compaction Equipment
 The desired level of compaction is best achieved by matching
the soil type and the compaction method. Other factors must
be considered as well, such as compaction specifications and
job site conditions
 Clayey soils:
 At the water content required for construction, clayey soil tends to be
in the form of semi-dry hard ‘clods’
 These need to be broken up (‘kneaded’) to force the soil into a denser
packing (otherwise the compacted soil will still consist of ‘clods’ with
large voids between them)
 The ‘kneading’ action of a ‘sheepsfoot’ roller (combined with
vibration) is the best means of doing this
 Granular soils: The particles require a shaking or vibratory
action to move them, vibrating rollers (or vibratory plate
compactors for small scale) are usually the best choice

Compaction: 5
 Types of Compaction
 There are four types of compaction effort on soil or asphalt:
 Pressure alone (from the weight of the roller)
 Vibration (+ pressure)
 Kneading – working the soil to break up lumps
 Impact
 Wide variety of field compaction equipment, so correct
choice of equipment (or mix of equipment) is vital for
achieving the required result at the best possible cost (=
usually in the minimum possible time)
 Smooth-wheeled steel drum rollers
 Pneumatic tyred rollers
 Sheepsfoot rollers
 Impact rollers
 Vibrating rollers
 Hand-operated vibrating plate and rammer compactors

Compaction: 6
 Smooth-Wheeled Steel Drum Rollers
 Self-propelled or towed steel rollers ranging from 2 - 20
tonnes
 Suitable for: well-graded sands and gravels; silts and clays of
low plasticity
 Unsuitable for: uniform sands; silty sands; soft clays

Compaction: 7
 Pneumatic-tyred Rollers
 Usually a container on two axles, with rubber-tyred wheels.
 Wheels aligned to give a full-width rolled track.
 Dead load (water) is added to give masses of 12-40 tonnes.
 Suitable for: most coarse and fine soils.
 Unsuitable for: very soft clay; highly variable soils.

Compaction: 8
 Sheepsfoot Roller ('tamping roller' ; pad-foot roller)
 Self propelled or towed units, with drum fitted with
projecting club-shaped ‘feet’ – high contact stress, ‘kneading’
action (and sometimes vibrating as well)
 Mass range from 5-8 tonnes
 Suitable for: fine grained soils; sands and gravels, with
>20% fines; good for breaking down soil ‘clods’
 Unsuitable for: very coarse soils; uniform gravels

Compaction: 9
 Impact Roller
 Compaction by static pressure, combined with the impact of
the 5-sided roller
 Higher impact energy breaks up soil clods, achieving better
compaction (like a sheeps-foot roller in some ways)

Compaction: 10
 Impact Roller

Three-sided version

Effective to 2-4 m depth

Compaction: 11
 Vibrating Drum Roller
 Vibratory compactor: Fitting a vibrating mechanism to a
drum (or sheepsfoot) roller can increase its efficiency for
many soils. It also levels and smoothens any rutting that may
have been caused by tyre-roller.
 Sheepsfoot roller may also have vibration mechanism

Compaction: 12
 Vibration Mechanisms
 Vibrating mechanisms consist of internal rotating eccentric
masses – typically rotating at up to 30 Hz

Same direction of rotation

gives forward-backward
vibration (as well as
vertical) – discomfort to
operator? Counter-rotating masses –
vertical vibration only
Compaction: 13
 Plate and Rammer Compactors
 Vibrating plate compactors
 used for smaller confined areas
 common in house construction in Perth sand
 Rammer compactors used for backfilling (trenches)

Compaction: 14
 Factors Affecting Field Compaction (Soils)
 Soil type: Grain size distribution, shape of the particles,
specific, gravity, quantity of clay in the soil
 Water content (CRUCIAL)!
 Compaction Effort: Controlled by the type of the equipment,
thickness of the lift, and properties of the soil or mix.
 Layer (Lift) thickness: For soil, the thinner the layer is the
better compaction, but more costly.
 Number of passes of the equipment and its speed: For soil,
more passes lead to better compaction results
 Mix properties: Aggregate gradation, surface texture, and
angularity of the particle surfaces.
 Environmental Effects (for asphalt): Air temperature,
humidity, wind, temperature of the surface under the mix
Compaction: 15
 LABORATORY COMPACTION
 Aim of laboratory compaction:
Simulate field procedures, aid in
the control of placement
conditions.
 Two common types of test:
 “Standard” compaction test, steel
rammer dropped on loose soil
placed in a mold
 “Modified” compaction test –
similar, but heavier rammer, and
more layers used

 AS 1289 5.1.1 & 5.2.1 – 1993

Compaction: 16
 Standard (or ‘Proctor’) Compaction
 Mould is 105 mm diam. x 115.5 mm high (1 litre) & removable collar
 Hammer is 2.7 kg, drop height 300 mm
 Soil placed in mould in 3 layers, each compacted using 25 blows
 Total energy delivered = 596 kN.m/m3
 Layers judged so that at the end of compaction, soil is just above the top
of the lower mould
 Remove collar
 ‘Strike off’ excess
 Weigh mould
 determine wet density
 get water content
 get dry density
 Repeat at different water contents
 Plot dry density versus water content

Compaction: 17
 Modified Compaction
 Standard compaction test ‘too light’ to represent modern
field compaction equipment (‘Standard’ test is from 1930s)
 ‘Modified’ compaction test uses:
 heavier hammer (4.9 kg)
 greater drop height 450 mm
 same mould (1 litre)
 5 layers
 25 blows per layer
 Energy = 2703 kN.m/m3
 Standard = 596 kN.m/m3
• 4.5 times more energy
 Otherwise, procedure is the
same
Various hammers

Compaction: 18
Automatic compaction machine
 Maximum Possible Compaction
 Compaction involves rd 
Sr G s

1  A  Gs
driving out the air Sr  w .Gs 1  A   w.Gs

 Curves shows
maximum possible dry 2.6
For Gs = 2.65
unit weight for given 2.4
water content for

Dry Density r d (t/m 3)

2.2
degree of saturation 2
(Sr) = 100%, 95%, 1.8
90% and 85%
1.6
 These represent 1.4
Sr = 1
Sr = 0.95
maximum possible Sr = 0.9
1.2
density for zero air Sr = 0.85
1
voids (ZAV), and air 0 5 10 15 20
voids (A) of 5%, 10% Water Content w (%)
and 15%
Compaction: 19
 Actual Compaction Curve (Example)
 For a given compaction Air voids (%) 15 10 5 0
2
energy, curve achieved ZAV For Gs = 2.65
shows: 1.9
 a “maximum dry density” MDD = 1.87 t/m3

Dry Density r d (t/m 3)

rd max (MDD) corresponding 1.8
to an “optimum moisture
content” (OMC) 1.7

OMC = 14.4%
 near saturation on the ‘wet
1.6
side’ of OMC
(Sr = 95% in this case) 1.5
 low degrees of saturation on
the ‘dry side’ of OMC 1.4
 (dry unit weight gd rather 5 10 15 20
than dry density rd can be Water Content w (%)
plotted)

Optimum Moisture Content (OMC): The moisture content at which the

maximum possible dry density is achieved for a particular compaction energy
or compaction method Compaction: 20
 Reasons for the Shape of the Curve
 On the dry side of OMC, clayey soil shows high suction, hard
strong lumps, difficult to break down = difficult to compact
 Increasing the water content reduces the suction, softens the
lumps, ‘lubricates’ the grains = easier to compact
 As water content increases, higher dry densities result, until
we start approaching full saturation (say at Sr = 90-95 %)
 Now nearly impossible to drive out the last of the air –
further increase in water content results in reduced dry
density (curve follows down parallel to the maximum
possible density curve – the Zero Air Voids curve)
 (Note, values of MDD and OMC depend on the compaction
energy – they are not unique soil properties)
 For sand, suction at low water contents also prevents
compaction (but not if completely dry) Compaction: 21
 Cohesionless soil (clean sand)
 Cohesionless soils – rd max achieved either completely dry, or
completely saturated
 at low water content, grains held together by suction (water at grain
contacts only)
 this prevents compaction
 Laboratory test for rd max for sand requires fully saturated
sample, and involves vibration
 saturated sand in mould
 weight on top (=5 kPa)
 vibrate for certain time
 measure rd max

Compaction: 22
 MDD and OMC depend on input energy
 As compaction energy increases, MDD (gd max) increases and
OMC reduces (curves constrained by ZAV line: “parallel” to
ZAV line)

Modified

Standard

Compaction: 23
 Compaction affects soil ‘structure’
 Soil tends to be more flocculated on the dry side; more
dispersed on the wet side
 A: flocculated; C: dispersed
 More compactive effort tends to disperse the soil
 E more dispersed than A
 It is these different structures,
in conjunction with the different
dry densities, that give different
properties at different points
on the compaction diagram

Compaction: 24
 Compaction and Permeability
 Lowest permeability for clayey
soils compacted wet of OMC
 Where permeability (rather than
stiffness or strength) is
important, could be best to
compact wet of OMC
 More likely to undergo shrinkage
if allowed to dry = cracking
possible, leading to gross
reduction in overall permeability
 Balance between low
permeability and avoidance of
shrinkage cracking is a
primary concern in dam (core)
construction, and in clay lines
for waste disposal areas
Compaction: 25
 Suctions
 Compacted clay samples show
negative pore pressure (suction)
 depends on type of compaction &
moulding water content
 one of the contributing factors to soil
strength and stiffness
 will see later that keeping water away
from compacted subgrade is important 1 psi ~7 kPa
factor in life of pavement
 Amount of total shrinkage on
complete drying varies with
moulding water content and type of
compaction
 has implications for cracking of dam
cores and clay liners for waste storage
areas

Compaction: 26
 Range of OMC & MDD for various soils
 Different soils show different
compaction curves, even for
the same compaction energy
 Slight changes in soil from a
borrow area can change the
compaction characteristics
 Frequent checking of the
compaction curve essential, to
ensure that the correct target
values are being used

Compaction: 27
 Shear strength of compacted samples
 For same compaction energy, dry samples are much stronger
than wet samples, even though dry density may be less
 Dry samples more brittle
 if deformation  cracking
 Wet samples ductile
 may be an advantage
 can tolerate movement
 integrity of dam cores, liners

Compaction: 28
 Achieving the desired outcome
 In many cases (e.g. road construction), aim is to get densest possible state
 aim for high % of Modified MDD, and close to OMC (e.g. +0 – 2%)
 In other cases, aim might be to have lowest permeability
 compact wet of OMC, perhaps accepting lower density
 BUT
 soil compacted wet of OMC may undergo excessive shrinkage if allowed to
dry (cracking of dam cores, clay liners
 low overall permeability
 soil compacted very dry of OMC is strong, but brittle
 soil compacted wet of OMC is ductile – can accommodate larger
deformations without cracking
 Crucial to consider not just properties ‘as compacted’, but potential
changes in properties with time due to exposure to drying, water, etc.
 CHOOSING THE CORRECT COMPACTION STRATEGY
REQUIRES CAREFUL CONSIDERATION OF ALL THESE ISSUES

Compaction: 29
 ‘Drying Back’
 Common technique used in road construction
 Compact at close to OMC, to close to MDD
 Leave exposed to drying
for a period (weeks)
 reduces water content,
but not density
• may even increase density
 achieves much stiffer,
much stronger result

Compaction: 30
 Relative Desirability for Various Uses
(1=best; 14=least desirability)

* if gravelly Rolled Earth Canal

Suitability of ** erosion critical

*** volume change critical
- not appropriate for this
Fill Dams Sections
Foundations Roadways

Soils to Group
Symbol
type of use

Soil Type
Well-graded gravels, gravel/

Compaction GW

GP
sand mixes, little or no fines
Poorly-graded gravels, gravel/
mixtures, little or no fines
-

-
-

-
1

2
1

2
-

-
-

-
1

3
1

3
1

3
3

Silty gravels, poorly-graded

GM 2 4 - 4 4 1 4 4 9 5
gravel/sand/silt mixtures
Clay-like gravels, poorly
GC graded gravel/sand/clay 1 1 - 3 1 2 6 5 5 1
mixtures
Well-graded sands, gravelly
SW - - 3* 6 - - 2 2 2 4
sands, little or no fines
Poorly-graded sands, gravelly
SP - - 4* 7* - - 5 6 4 -
sands, little or no fines
Silty sands, poorly-graded
SM 4 5 - 8* 5** 3 7 6 10 6
sand/ silt mixtures
Clay-like sands, poorly-
SC 3 2 - 5 2 4 8 7 6 2
graded sand/clay mixtures
Inorganic silts and very fine
sands, rock flour, silty or clay-
ML 6 6 - - 6** 6 9 10 11 -
like fine sands with slight
plasticity
Inorganic clays of low to
medium
CL plasticity, gravelly clays, 5 3 - 9 3 5 10 9 7 7
sandy
clays, silty clays, lean clays
Organic silts and organic silt-
OL 8 8 - - 7** 7 11 11 12 -
clays of low plasticity
Organic silts, micaceous or
MN diatomaceous fine sandy or 9 9 - - - 8 12 12 13 -
silty soils, elastic silts
Inorganic clays of high
CH 7 7 - 10 8** 9 13 13 8 -
plasticity, fat clays
Organic clays of medium high
OH 10 10 - - - 10 Compaction:
14 14 1431 -
plasticity
 Control/Monitoring of Field Compaction
 Field compaction is normally
specified in terms of the 2
maximum dry density obtained Meets specification

from the laboratory 1.9

MDD
For Gs = 2.65
 Example: Must achieve 95% of ZAV

Dry Density r d (t/m 3)

MDD, and OMC ± 1% 1.8
95% MDD
 In the diagram, tests falling
1.7
into yellow zone meet these two
OMC
requirements
1.6
 often, only minimum density
OMC - 1% OMC + 1%
ratio specified (e.g.  95%
1.5
MDD)
 Adequate compaction requires 1.4
compaction in layers (generally 5 10 15 20
<150 mm thick) Water Content w (%)
 Must have tests to check on
field density & moisture
content, to determine if
requirements are met
Compaction: 32
 Control of Field Compaction
Field Density Testing Method
Balloon Dens
Sand Cone Shelby Tube Nuclear Gauge
meter

* Large sample * Fast

* Fast
* Large sample * Direct reading * Easy to redo
Advantages * Deep sample
* Accurate obtained * More tests (statistical
* Under pipe haunches
* Open graded material reliability)
* Many steps
* Small Sample * No sample
* Large area required * Slow
* No gravel * Radiation
Disadvantages * Slow * Balloon breakage
* Sample not always * Moisture suspect
* Halt Equipment * Awkward
retained * Encourages amateurs
* Tempting to accept flukes
* Void under plate * Miscalibrated
* Surface not level * Overdrive
* Sand bulking * Rocks in path
Errors * Soil pumping * Rocks in path
* Sand compacted * Surface prep required
* Void under plate * Plastic soil
* Soil pumping * Backscatter
Compaction: 33
Cost * Low * Moderate * Low * High
 A
Sand Replacement Method
 Find sand loose density (lab.) - gmin
 Known weight of sand in bottle
 Calibrate – how much left after opening
cone on level surface (A)
 Dig hole – collect, weigh and dry the soil
removed (B)
 Fill hole with sand – weigh what is left in
bottle (C)
 Slow (costly), accurate
C

B
Compaction: 34
 Coring
 Drive coring tube into ground surface using special hammer
and protective collar
 Dig out the coring tube, trim the ends, weigh the contents
 Obtain water content
Driving collar (‘dolly’)
 work out the dry density
 Used also for obtaining samples for
determining the in situ ‘CBR’ value
(‘California Bearing Ratio’)
 discuss later in the pavements section

130 mm 100 mm

Compaction: 35
 Nuclear Density Meter
 Measures absorption of radiation (function of density)
 Fast, accurate (after calibration)
 Most common method

Compaction: 36
 Perth Sand Penetrometer Top stop

 Developed in Australia
 from ‘Scala Penetrometer’- similar but has cone at the 6 kg sliding mass,
tip (used for CBR testing – see later in ‘pavements’) drop onto anvil
 Widely used in Australia for compaction control in
sand
 house sand pads
 backfilling of trenches 600 mm free
 N = number of blows for penetration from 150 mm to drop height
450 mm (penetration of 300 mm)
 Correlations between N and percentage MDD (Glick
and Clegg, UWA) Fixed anvil
 for house pads, typically N  7 or 8
 Can fit extension rods (up to 3 m) - much abused test Count
 overburden stress increases the N value without any number of
increase in density blows (N)
for 300 mm
 therefore, N = 8 at 3 m depth indicates a much lower penetration
density than N = 8 at surface
16 mm diameter bar Ignore first
150 mm of
50 mm graduations penetration37
Compaction:
 “Intelligent Compaction”
Based on vibrating drum roller being equipped with
accelerometers, to measure the ground response to
the vibrations. Not yet widely used, but will be much
more so in the future.
The principle is that the accelerations measured in
the drum depend on the ground stiffness (if you drop
something onto soft ground, the (negative)
acceleration is much lower than if you drop the same
object onto hard ground). As the ground stiffness
increases with ongoing compaction, the acceleration
response changes. By automatically logging the
ground response, and mapping this onto a 2-D plan of
the ground surface, ‘soft spots’ can be readily
identified. So, even as a simple indicator of where to
concentrate the compaction effort, the system would
be useful.
The systems in use in Europe go further. The ground
response is used to change the vibration mode of the
drum to improve compaction efficiency, and to
indicate where compaction effort should be
concentrated.

Compaction: 38