MULTICOPTERS

By:Vishal kumar (184058)

Description
A multicopter is a mechanically simple aerial vehicle whose motion is controlled by speeding or
slowing multiple downward thrusting motor/propeller units.

They are aerodynamically unstable and require a control system (aka flight controller) for stable
flight.The flight controller combines data from small on-board MEMs gyroscopes, accelerometers to
maintain an accurate estimate of its orientation and position.
 Types
There are many types of multirotor. They are generally categorized by the number of
motors used, eg. bicopter or tri-copter.

➔ Bicopter: The BiCopter has two motors that can be moved by servos to desired tilt
angles. They could be the cheapest multirotor config. as it uses only two motors
and two servo but it is also most difficult to stabilise its flight, because it has the
least lifting power, of course due to only two rotor. It is not much popular among
the hobbyist.
➔ Tricopter (3 Motor multicopter): The Tricopter has 3 motors, and normally in a
“Y” shape, where the arms are usually 120 degrees apart. Tricopters can
sometimes be found in a “T” shape too.
Two propellers on the front arms spins the opposite direction to counter each
other out. The rear motor can be tilted left and right by a servo to enable the yaw
mechanism.

Tricopter has more yaw authority comparing to a

quadcopter. What that means is when a quadcopter or
hexacopter yaws, they do so by slowing down half of the
motors and speeding the other half. If the copter is
already at full speed (all motors at 100%), it will have to
lower the speed to make yaw happens. However on a
Tricopter, it uses a servo to achieve yaw so it loses less
thrust when the same situation happens.
➔ QuadCopter(4 Motor multicopter): A quadcopter has 4 motors mounted on a
symmetric frame, each arm is typically 90 degree apart for the X4 config. Two motors
rotate CW (clockwise), and the other two rotate CCW (counter clockwise) to create
opposite force to stay balance. Quadcopter is the most popular multirotor
configuration, with the simplest mechanical structure.

➔ Y4-4 Motors: It looks like a tricopter but without the tail servo. There are two normal
propellers and motors in front on separate arms and two coaxial motors in the rear
mounted to one arm. Mechanically it’s simpler than tricopters because of the absence
of the and yaw mechanism.
➔ VTail and ATail (4 Motors): The V-Tail and A-Tail are
basically quadcopter config with the front motors on
normal quadcopter arms, while the rear motors located in
close proximity, tilted at an vertical angle either inward or
outward. It’s a mix between a quadcopter and a tricopter
and very similar to Y4 config.

➔ Hexacopters (6 Motor multirotor): The hexacopter

has 6 motors mounted typically 60 degree apart on a
symmetric frame, with three sets of CW and CCW
motors/propellers.Hexacopters are very similar to the
quadcopters, but they provide more lifting capacity with
the extra motors. There is also improvement in
redundancy: if one motor fails, the aircraft can still remain
stable enough for a safe landing. The downside is that
they tend to be larger in size and more expensive to build.
➔ Y6 Hexacopter: The Y6 has 6 motors on a “Y” shape
frame. They are similar in shape to a tricopter but it has
two motors on per arm, one above and the other. It uses
both CW and CCW propellers on the same arm rather
than a servo to enable yaw.

➔ Octo-copter (8 Motor multirotor): A typical

octocopter has 8 motors on the same level with four sets
of CW and CCW propellers.Octocopters are similar to
quadcopters and hexacopters. It’s like an upgrade version
of the hexacopter with even more lifting capacity and
redundancy.
However the large number of motors means they draw
more current, and will probably need to carry multiple
battery packs. Also it’s going to be expensive.
 Flight Dynamics (Quadcopter)
Each rotor produces both a thrust and torque about its center of rotation, as well as a drag force opposite to
the vehicle's direction of flight. If all rotors are spinning at the same angular velocity, with rotors one and three
rotating clockwise and rotors two and four counterclockwise, the net aerodynamic torque, and hence the
angular acceleration about the yaw axis, is exactly zero, which means there is no need for a tail rotor as on
conventional helicopters. Yaw is induced by mismatching the balance in aerodynamic torques (i.e., by
offsetting the cumulative thrust commands between the counter-rotating blade pairs).
Flight Dynamics (Quadcopter) contd.
★ A quadrotor hovers or adjusts
its altitude by applying equal
thrust to all four rotors.
★ A quadrotor adjusts its yaw by
applying more thrust to rotors
rotating in one direction.
★ A quadrotor adjusts its pitch
or roll by applying more
thrust to one rotor and less
thrust to its diametrically
opposite rotor.
➔ Coaxial configuration:
In coaxial
configuration, rotors are mounted one
above the other on concentric shafts,
with the same axis of rotation, but
turning in opposite directions (contra-
rotating). They provide more power
and stability at reduced weight.
➔ Vortex ring state: Vortex ring state,
in which airflow is upward on the inner
blade section, producing a secondary
vortex in addition to the normal wingtip
vortices. Turbulent airflow results and
loss of rotor efficiency. If allowed to
continue, uncommanded pitch and roll
oscillations may occur, with a large
descent rate
Useful links: Quadcopter flight dynamics, Quadcopter flight mechanics
 The Control systems of a Multirotor
➔ Rate and attitude control: Due to the nature of the dynamics of the quadrotor, several
control algorithms have been applied to it. As to be expected, each control scheme has its
advantages and disadvantages.

➢ Proportional Integral Derivative (PID): It has been applied to a broad range of

controller applications. The classical PID linear controller has the advantage that parameter gains
are easy to adjust, is simple to design and has good robustness. However some of the major
challenges with the quadrotor include the nonlinearity associated with the mathematical model and
the imprecise nature of the model due to unmodeled or inaccurate mathematical modeling of some
of the dynamics. Therefore applying PID controller to the quadrotor limits its performance.
➢ Linear Quadratic Regulator/Gaussian (LQR/G): The LQR optimal control
algorithm operates a dynamic system by minimizing a suitable cost function. However, the PID is
applied on the quadrotor simplified dynamics and the LQR on the complete model. Both approaches
provided average results but it implicitly was clear that the LQR approach had better performance
considering the fact that it was applied to a more complete dynamic model. In combination with a
Linear Quadratic Estimator (LQE) and Kalman Filter, the LQR algorithms transforms into the
Linear Quadratic Gaussian (LQG). This algorithm is for systems with Gaussian noise and incomplete
state information.
 The Control systems of a Multirotor
➢ Sliding Mode Control (SMC): Sliding mode control is a nonlinear control algorithm that
works by applying a discontinuous control signal to the system to command it to slide along a
prescribed path. Its main advantage is that it does not simplify the dynamics through linearization and
has good tracking.
➢ (Integrated) Backstepping control: Backstepping control is a recursive algorithm that
breaks down the controller into steps and progressively stabilizes each subsystem. Its advantage is that
the algorithm converges fast leading to less computational resources and it can handle disturbances
well. The main limitation with the algorithm is its robustness is not good.
To increase robustness (to external disturbances) of the general backstepping algorithm, an integrator is
added and the algorithm becomes Integrator backstepping control as articulated by Fang and Gao.
➢ Adaptive control Algorithms: Adaptive control algorithms are aimed at adapting to
parameter changes in the system. The parameters are either uncertain or varying with time. It was
observed that when the center of gravity changes, PD and regular feedback linearization techniques
were not able to stabilize the system but the adaptive controller was able to stabilize it.
➢ Robust Control Algorithms: Robust control algorithms are designed to deal with
uncertainty in the system parameters or disturbances. This guarantees controller performance within
acceptable disturbance ranges or un-modeled system parameters. A major limitation normally observed
with robust controllers is poor tracking ability.
 The Control systems of a Multirotor
➢ Optimal Control Algorithms: Optimization algorithms are designed to minimize a variable
and get the best cost function from a set of alternatives. A specialized case of optimization is known as
convex optimization. This is a mathematical optimization technique that deals with minimizing a convex
variable in a convex set. The common optimal algorithms include LQR, L1 , H∞ and Kalman filter. A major
limitation of optimization algorithms is generally their poor robustness.
➢ Feedback linearisation: Feedback linearization control algorithms transform a nonlinear
system model into an equivalent linear system through a change of variables. Some limitation of
feedback linearization is the loss of precision due to linearization and requiring an exact model for
implementation. Feedback linearization was compared with adaptive sliding mode control. The feedback
controller, with simplified dynamics, was found to be very sensitive to sensor noise and not robust. The
sliding mode controller performed well under noisy conditions and adaptation was able to estimate
uncertainties such as ground effect. Hence, feedback linearization nonlinear control shows good
tracking but poor disturbance rejection. However, feedback linearization applied with another algorithm
with less sensitivity to noise give good performance.
➢ Intelligent control (Fuzzy logic and Artificial Neural Networks): Intelligent
control algorithms apply several artificial intelligence approaches, some biologically-inspired, to control
a system. Examples include fuzzy logic, neural networks, machine learning, and genetic algorithm.They
typically involve considerable uncertainty and mathematical complexity. This complexity and abundant
computational resources required are limitations to the use of intelligent systems
Popular softwares:

★ Designing and Simulation:

★ Mach-Up: (Link here)
★ AVL (from MIT): (Link here)
★ Drone mapping softwares:
★ Dronedeploy: (Link here)
★ Pix4D: (Link here)
★ ContextCapture: (Link here)
★ Agisoft: (Link here)
★ Propeller Network: (Link here)
Flight Controllers:
The quadcopter flight controller is nothing but a circuit board that manages the functioning of drone. It is a
single point contact between the drone and the user.

Important points to keep in mind while selecting a controller:

● Flying style
● Open source flight controller
● Price
● Other features
1) Altitude hold
2) GPS
3) Gyro stabilisation
4) Orientation mode
5) Position hold
6) Return home
7) Self levelling
Popular flight controllers:
● The Naza-M V2 flight controller:
❖ Easy to deploy autopilot.
❖ Highly stable drone controller
❖ Best for aerial photography
❖ Enhanced fail safe features
❖ A little bit learning curve needed
❖ Little bit expensive
● DJI A3 flight controller:
❖ Custom flight altitude and radius limits
❖ Auto takeoff and landing
❖ Easy to use
❖ Fully compatible and reliable safeguards
● DJI N3 quadcopter flight
controller:
❖ Intelligent flight mode
❖ Motor fail protection (min 6 axis)
❖ Compatible with a wide range of devices
❖ Enhanced fail safe features
❖ slightly learning curve needed
● Naza-M Lite flight
controller:
❖ Cheap flight controller
❖ Very simple to set up and use
❖ Good for aerial photography
❖ Not for professionals
❖ Lacks some advanced features
● RJX Raceflight F4 flight
controller:
❖ Built in onboard regulator
❖ Buzzer port and LED strip port
❖ MPU6000 SPI Bus
❖ 128 Mb flash
❖ Low noise gyro
❖ Perfect for raceflights
❖ Direct LiPo input: 1.5A