MEPE 505

Power Systems and Protection

 INTRODUCTION
2.1. Purpose of System Protection
• Protection of the public
• Improve system stability
• Minimize damage to equipment
• Protect against overloads
 INTRODUCTION
2.2. Equipment that is usually protected
• Generators
• Transformers
• Reactors
• Transmission Lines
• Buses
• Capacitors
• Motors
 INTRODUCTION
2.3. Protection Devices
• Current Transformer (CT)
• Voltage/ Potential Transformer
• Protective relays
• Fuses
• Circuit breakers
• Auto-reclosers
• Sectionalisers
• Surge Arresters
 INTRODUCTION
2.4. Characteristics of Protection Equipment and Protection
Systems
Sensitivity
• Sensitivity refers to the minimal changes in measured parameter
that the system can react to.
• The sensitivity is determined by the CT/VT and design of the
system
 INTRODUCTION
Selectivity
• Definition: The ability of the relay to differentiate between
those conditions for which immediate action is required
and those for which no action is required.
• Only the affected parts of the power system must be
disconnected.
• Devices must avoid unwarranted false trips.
• Selectivity is achieved by proper grading and use of unit
protection systems.
 INTRODUCTION
Selectivity
• The relays must also be able to recognize faults on their
own protected equipment and ignore in certain cases, all
faults outside their protective area.
 INTRODUCTION
Speed
• The ability of the relay to operate in the required time
period.
• Faults must be isolated as fast as possible.
• Speed is necessary for two main reasons: a) to maintain
stability of the overall power system and b) for the
reduction of damage to equipment and property
•
 INTRODUCTION
Speed
• Speed is important in clearing fault since it has a direct
bearing on the damage done by the short circuit current,
thus, the ultimate goal of protective equipment is to
disconnect the faulty equipment as quickly as possible.
 INTRODUCTION
Reliability
• The protection system must function consistently when
fault conditions occur, regardless of possibly being idle for
months or years.
• Reliability can be split into dependability and security.
• Dependability is the tendency of a protection system to
operate correctly for in zone faults, while security is the
tendency of the protection system not to operate for out of
zone faults.
 INTRODUCTION
Reliability (ctd)
• Reliability is achieved by correct design, correct
installation and commissioning, and by regular and correct
maintenance.
• Dependability
• Discrimination
 INTRODUCTION
2.5. Fault Calculations
2.5.1. Per Unit System
• Per unit (P.U.) fault calculations, also called P.U. System
is a method whereby system impedances and quantities
are normalised across different voltage levels to a
common base.
• By removing the impact of varying voltages, the necessary
calculations are simplified.
 INTRODUCTION
• To use per unit method, we normalise all system
impedances within the network under consideration to a
common base.
• These normalised impedances are known as per unit
impedances.
• Any per unit impedance will have the same value on both
the primary and secondary of a transformer and is
independent of voltage level.
 INTRODUCTION
• A network of per unit impedances can then be solved
using standard network analysis.
• From this, the fault level can be readily determined.
• Having selected a base MVA and voltage, the base per
unit values of impedance, admittance and current can be
calculated
 INTRODUCTION
• Formulae
𝑆𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒
1. 𝐼𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 =
3𝑉𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒

2
𝑉𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒
2. 𝑍𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 =
𝑆𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒

𝑍𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙
3. 𝑍𝑝𝑢 =
𝑍𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒
 INTRODUCTION
1
4. 𝑌𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 =
𝑍𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒

Change of Base
• Sometimes per unit values are available for a given base
kV, but the problem being solved is using a different base.
• In this instance it is possible to convert the per unit values
using “Change of Base”
 INTRODUCTION
• Formula for Change of Base
2
𝑉𝑏,𝑜𝑙𝑑 𝑆𝑏,𝑛𝑒𝑤
𝑍𝑝𝑢(𝑛𝑒𝑤) = 𝑍𝑝𝑢(𝑜𝑙𝑑) 
𝑉𝑏,𝑛𝑒𝑤 𝑆𝑏,𝑜𝑙𝑑

• Fault level calculations problems typically deal with

sources, generators, transformers and system
impedances.
 INTRODUCTION
• Per unit values of these elements can quickly be derived from:

Sources

Generators

Transformers

System impedances
, where V is in kV
 INTRODUCTION
Note:
• The value of Sbase is the same for the entire system.
• The ratio of the voltage bases on either side of a transformer
selected, are the same as the ratio of the transformer voltage
ratios.
• The value of Vbase is a chosen value but will vary from one Zone
to the other.
 INTRODUCTION
Example.01

11 kV
10MVA 11kV/440 V
X = 10% 12 MVA
X = 5%

a) Determine the p.u. values and draw the p.u. reactance diagram.
Use Sb = 10 MVA
b) If a 3-phase fault occurs on the 440 b/b, determine the
fault current
More Examples
Example 2
A 3-phase alternator rated at 50MVA, 12.8 kV has a synchronous
reactance/phase of 2.0 p.u. on its thermal rating. It supplies an 11-
kV overhead line, 5 km long each phase of which has an
impedance of 0.22 + j0.51 /km. Calculate the total impedance of
generator and line on a base of 100 MVA (3-phase) and 11kV.

Solution
Class discussion
 SYMMETRICAL COMPONENTS
2.5.2. Symmetrical Components
• Also called “ Method of Symmetrical Components”
What are “Symmetrical Components”
What are they used for?
• History
• Review of concept of “Phase Sequence” in power systems
 SYMMETRICAL COMPONENTS
Review of Concept of Phase Sequence
• What are the 3 important parameters of a balanced
system?
1. Line voltage –magnitude
2. Frequency
3. Phase sequence
• Why is phase sequence important?
a) Determines direction of 3-phase motors
b) 3-phase systems can be paralleled
 SYMMETRICAL COMPONENTS
Review of Concept of Phase Sequence
b) 3-phase systems can be paralleled
What is phase sequence?
• Phase sequence means the order in which the 3 line
voltages become +ve.
• Can be understood thus
(1) Consider 3 letters printed on a disc at 120 apart
(2) Disc is slowly rotating CCW, see Fig (a) below
 SYMMETRICAL COMPONENTS
Review of Concept of Phase Sequence

(a) (b)
Fig. (a) sequence: a-b-c; (b)a-c-b
 SYMMETRICAL COMPONENTS
Review of Concept of Phase Sequence (ctd)

(c)

Fig.: Sequence : a-c-b

 SYMMETRICAL COMPONENTS
Review of Concept of Phase Sequence
• Fig. (a):
(1) Disc rotates CCW: sequence is a-b-c-a-b-c: Positive
(2) Sequence can be represented by : abc, bca, cab

• Fig (b):
(1) Disc rotates CW: sequence is a-c-b-a-c-b: Negative
(2) Sequence can be represented by : acb, cba, bca
 SYMMETRICAL COMPONENTS
Review of Concept of Phase Sequence
• Fig. (c)
(1) Interchanged any 2 letters, a & c
(2) Rotation now CCW
(3) Sequence now : c-b-a-c-b-a …..
(4) Sequence represented by: cba, bac, acb
(5) Fig.(c) = Fig. (b)
• Fig. (a)  Positive Sequence; Fig.(b)  Negative Sequence
 SYMMETRICAL COMPONENTS
What are “Symmetrical Components”
• The “method of symmetrical components” is a method
that is used to simplify analysis of unbalanced three-phase
power systems under both normal and abnormal
conditions.
• The basic idea is that an asymmetrical set of N-phasors
can be expressed as a linear combination of N
symmetrical sets of phasors by means of a complex linear
transformation.
 SYMMETRICAL COMPONENTS
• In the most common case of three-phase systems, the
resulting "symmetrical" components are referred to as
direct (or positive), inverse (or negative) and zero (or
homopolar).
• The analysis of power system is much simpler in the
domain of symmetrical components, because the resulting
equations are mutually linearly independent if the circuit
itself is balanced.
 SYMMETRICAL COMPONENTS
The three-phase system
• Symmetrical components are most commonly used for
analysis of three-phase electrical power systems.
How?
• The voltage or current of a three-phase system at some
point can be indicated by three phasors, called the three
components of the voltage or the current.
• In a perfectly balanced three-phase power system, the
voltage phasor components have equal magnitudes but
are 120 apart.
 SYMMETRICAL COMPONENTS
• In an unbalanced system (of which a fault condition is one
example), the magnitudes and phases of the voltage
phasor components are different.
• Decomposing the voltage phasor components into a set of
symmetrical components helps analyze the system as well
as visualize any imbalances.
• These phasor components, i.e. one can resolve the
unbalance voltages or currents into what are called
a) Positive Sequence Phasors/components
b) Negative Sequence Phasors/components
c) Zero sequence components
 SYMMETRICAL COMPONENTS
Definitions
Positive Sequence Phasors/components: A set of three
phasors equal in magnitude, displaced from each other by
120° in phase and having the same phase sequence as the
original unbalanced phasors.
OR:
A balanced three-phase system with the same phase
sequence as the original sequence.
 SYMMETRICAL COMPONENTS
Negative Sequence Phasors/components: A set of three
phasors equal in magnitude, displaced from each other by
120° in phase and having the phase sequence opposite to
that of the original phasors.
OR
A balanced three-phase system with the opposite phase
sequence as the original sequence.
 SYMMETRICAL COMPONENTS
Zero sequence components: A set of three phasors equal in
magnitude with zero phase displacement from each other.
OR
Three phasors that are equal in magnitude and phase

• The above components are shown graphically below

 SYMMETRICAL COMPONENTS

Fig.: Representation of (a) an unbalanced network, its (b) positive

sequence, (c) negative sequence and (d) zero sequence.
 SYMMETRICAL COMPONENTS
• The Fig. above depicts a set of three unbalanced phasors
that are resolved into the three sequence/phase
components that are in themselves balanced and
symmetrical.
• In this, the original set of three phasors are denoted by Va ,
Vb and Vc , while their positive, negative and zero
sequence components are denoted by the subscripts 1, 2
and 0 respectively.
• This implies that the positive, negative and zero sequence
components of phase-a are denoted by Va1 , Va2 and Va0
respectively.
 SYMMETRICAL COMPONENTS
• Note that just like the voltage phasors above, we can also
resolve three unbalanced current phasors into three
symmetrical components.
 SYMMETRICAL COMPONENTS
• If the three voltage components are expressed as phasors
(which are complex numbers), a complex vector can be formed
in which the three phase components are the components of the
vector.
How does it work?
• Define an operator , henceforth called the -operator which
rotates a phasor quantity by 120° anti-clockwise similar in
principle to the j-operator which rotates a phasor by 90°.
2
1 3 𝑗
Then 𝑎 = 1∠120° = − + 𝑗 = 𝑒 3 = 𝑒 𝑗120
2 2
 SYMMETRICAL COMPONENTS

Note that the following relations hold for the -operator

 SYMMETRICAL COMPONENTS
• Additional properties of the -operator
(a) α3 = 1
(b) α−1 = α2.
 SYMMETRICAL COMPONENTS
• A vector for three phase voltage components can be
written in matrix form as
𝑉𝑎
𝑉𝑎𝑏𝑐 = 𝑉𝑏
𝑉𝑐
and decomposing the vector into three symmetrical
components gives
𝑉𝑎 𝑉𝑎,0 𝑉𝑎,1 𝑉𝑎,2
𝑉𝑏 = 𝑉𝑏,0 + 𝑉𝑏,1 + 𝑉𝑏,2
𝑉𝑐 𝑉𝑐,0 𝑉𝑐,1 𝑉𝑐,2
 SYMMETRICAL COMPONENTS
• Subscripts 0, 1, and 2 refer respectively to the zero,
positive, and negative sequence components.
• The sequence components have equal amplitudes; they
differ only by their phase angles, which are symmetrical
and so are 2/3 radians or 120°.
• The zero sequence components have equal magnitude
and in phase with each other,
 𝑉0  𝑉𝑎,0 = 𝑉𝑏,0 = 𝑉𝑐,0
 SYMMETRICAL COMPONENTS
• The 1, and 2 phase sequences/components have the
same magnitude, but their phases differ by 120°:
 𝑉1  𝑉𝑎,1 = 2 𝑉𝑏,1 = 𝑉𝑐,1

𝑉2  𝑉𝑎,2 = 2 𝑉𝑏,2 = 𝑉𝑐,2

• Can re-write vabc (vector in matrix form) thus
𝑉0 𝑉1 𝑉2
𝒗𝑎𝑏𝑐 = 𝑉0 + 2 𝑉1 + 2 𝑉2 = 𝑨𝒗𝑎𝑏𝑐
𝑉0 𝑉1 𝑉2
 SYMMETRICAL COMPONENTS
1 1 1 𝑉0
𝒗𝑎𝑏𝑐 = 1 2  𝑉1 = 𝑨𝒗012
1  2 𝑉2

1 1 1
𝐀 = 1 2   𝑨𝑎𝑏𝑐
1  2

𝑉0
𝒗012 = 𝑉1
𝑉2
 SYMMETRICAL COMPONENTS
• In reverse phase rotation systems, the following matrix can be
similarly derived
1 1 1
𝐴𝑎𝑐𝑏 = 1  2
1 2 

Decomposition
• The sequence components are derived from the analysis
equation
𝑣012 = 𝐴−1 𝑣𝑎𝑏𝑐 ……… (1)
 SYMMETRICAL COMPONENTS
where
1 1 1
1
𝐴−1
=
3
1  2 ….. (2)
1 2 

• Equations (1)& (2) tell how to derive symmetrical components

corresponding to an asymmetrical set of three phasors:
1) Sequence 0 is one-third the sum of the original three phasors.
2) Sequence 1 is one-third the sum of the original three phasors
rotated counter-clockwise 0°, 120°, and 240°.
 SYMMETRICAL COMPONENTS
3) Sequence 2 is one-third the sum of the original three
phasors rotated clockwise 0°, 240°, and 120°.
• Visually, if the original components are symmetrical,
sequences 1 and 2 will each form a triangle, summing to
zero, and sequence 0 components will sum to a straight
line.
• Pictorially, they are shown as follows - see insert next
page
SYMMETRICAL COMPONENTS
Va2

a
a
Va1

a
a
Vc2
Vb2 Negative
Sequence acb

Vb1
Vc1 Va0
Positive Vb0
Sequence abc
Vc0

Zero
Sequence
 SYMMETRICAL COMPONENTS
• From the above. We can write
For Voltages: For currents:
𝑉𝑎 = 𝑉𝑎0 + 𝑉𝑎1 + 𝑉𝑎2 𝐼𝑎 = 𝐼𝑎0 + 𝐼𝑎1 + 𝐼𝑎2
𝑉𝑏 = 𝑉𝑏0 + 𝑉𝑏1 + 𝑉𝑏2 𝐼𝑏 = 𝐼𝑏0 + 𝐼𝑏1 + 𝐼𝑏2
𝑉𝑐 = 𝑉𝑐0 + 𝑉𝑐1 + 𝑉𝑐2 𝐼𝑐 = 𝐼𝑐0 + 𝐼𝑐1 + 𝐼𝑐2
 SYMMETRICAL COMPONENTS
• For Currents, taking a to be the reference phasor, and
𝐼𝑎0 = 𝐼0 , 𝐼𝑎1 = 𝐼1 , 𝐼𝑎2 = 𝐼2
• The equations become
𝐼𝑎 = 𝐼0 + 𝐼1 + 𝐼2
𝐼𝑏 = 𝐼0 + 𝑎2 𝐼1 + 𝑎𝐼2
𝐼𝑐 = 𝐼0 + 𝑎𝐼1 + 𝑎2 𝐼2
• In matrix format:
 SYMMETRICAL COMPONENTS
𝐼𝑎 1 1 1 𝐼0
𝐼𝑏 = 1 𝑎2 𝑎 𝐼1
𝐼𝑐 1 𝑎 𝑎2 𝐼2
• When inverted:
𝐼0 1 1 1 𝐼𝑎
1
𝐼1 = 1 𝑎 𝑎2 𝐼𝑏
3
𝐼2 1 𝑎2 𝑎 𝐼𝑐
1 1
⇒ 𝐼0 = (𝐼𝑎 + 𝐼𝑏 + 𝐼𝑐 ) ; 𝐼1 = (𝐼𝑎 + 𝑎𝐼𝑏 + 𝑎2 𝐼𝑐 )
3 3
1
𝐼2 = (𝐼𝑎 + 𝑎2 𝐼𝑏 + 𝑎𝐼𝑐 )
3
 SYMMETRICAL COMPONENTS
• Similarly for Voltages
1 1
𝑉0 = (𝑉𝑎 + 𝑉𝑏 + 𝑉𝑐 ); 𝑉1 = (𝑉𝑎 + 𝑎𝑉𝑏 + 𝑎2 𝑉𝑐 )
3 3
1
𝑉2 = (𝑉𝑎 + 𝑎2 𝑉𝑏 + 𝑎𝑉𝑐 )
3
 SYMMETRICAL COMPONENTS
Example
Find the symmetrical components of phase a, when:
𝐼𝑎0 = 80∠ − 80° A ; 𝐼𝑏1 = 55∠ − 120° A ; 𝐼𝑐1 = 110∠60° A

Solution
Class discussion
SYMMETRICAL COMPONENTS