PRINCIPLES OF TEACHING,

CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT
EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY, &
CURRICULUM EVELOPMENT.
ELEMENTS OF TEACHING

1. TEACHER
2. LEARNER
3. CONTENT (Subject matter)
Get to know students to aid in:

- course design, decisions about objectives, pacing,

examples, and format.
- help explain student difficulties, identify common
misconceptions.
- guide instructional adaptations recognition of the
need for additional practice.
PRINCIPLES of TEACHING
for
LEARNING
 PRINCIPLES of TEACHING

1. Effective teaching involves acquiring

relevant knowledge about students and using
that knowledge of course design and
classroom teaching.

When we teach, we do not just teach the

content, we teach students the content.
2. Effective teaching involves aligning the three
major components of instruction:
Learning objectives
 clear

Instructional activities
 support objectives

Assessment
 provide opportunities to demonstrate and practice knowledge and
skills articulated in objectives – student
offer targeted feedback – teacher
3. Effective teaching involves articulating explicit
expectations regarding learning objectives and
policies.

- gives students clear target.

- reduces tension between student and teacher.
- more productive learning environment.
4. Effective teaching involves prioritizing the
knowledge and skills we choose to focus on:
- recognize parameters of course.
-set priorities for student learning.
- determine reasonable objective.

5. Effective teaching involves recognizing and

overcoming our expert blind eyes.
We are not our students!
6. Effective teaching involves adopting
appropriate teaching roles to support our learning
goals.

7. Effective teaching involves progressively

refining our courses based on reflection and
feedback.

Reflect  Adapt  Make changes

 PRINCIPLE of LEARNING

1. Students’ prior knowledge can help or hinder

learning.
robust and accurate and activated at the
appropriate time, it provides a strong foundation
for building new knowledge.

However, when knowledge is insert, insufficient for

the task, activated inappropriately, or inaccurate, it
can interfere with or impede new learning.
2. How students organize knowledge influence
how they learn and apply what they know.

When those connections form knowledge structure

that are accurately and meaningfully organized,
students are better able to retrieve and apply their
knowledge effectively and efficiently.

In contrast, when knowledge is connected in

inaccurate or random ways, students can fail to
retrieve or apply it appropriately.
3. Students motivation determines, directs, and
sustains what they do to learn.
When students find positive value in a learning
goal or activity, expect to successfully achieve a
desired learning outcome and perceive support from
their environment, they are likely to be strongly
motivated to learn.

4. To develop mastery, students must acquire

components skills, practice integrating them,
and know when to apply what they have
learned.
5. Goal-directed practice + targeted feedback
enhances the quality of students’ learning.

Feedback: explicitly communicates students’

performance relative to specific target criteria, provides
information to help students meet those criteria, given
at a time and frequency that allows it to be useful.
6. Students’ current level of development
interacts with the social, emotional, and
intellectual climate of the course to impact
learning.

7. To become self-directed learners, students

must learn to monitor and adjust their
approaches to learning or metacognitive
process to gain intellectual habits.
25 LEARNING PRINCIPLES
to
Guide Pedagogy and Design of Learning
Environments
 CONTIGUITY EFFECTS

Ideas that need to be associated should be presented

contiguously in space and time in the multimedia learning
environment.

Design learning materials and lessons plans so that

elements and ideas that need to be related are
presented near each other.
 PERCEPTUAL-MOTOR GROUNDING

Concepts benefit from being grounded on concrete

perceptual-motor experience, particularly when concepts
are first introduced.

Teachers should ground new concepts (learners

visualize picture of concept, manipulate aspects,
observe how it functions over time).
 DUAL CODE AND MULTIMEDIA EFFECTS

Information presented in multiple modes (verbal and

pictorials), sensory modalities (auditory and visual), or
media (computers and lectures) are remembered better.

Design learning materials in multiple modes,

modalities and media but do not overwhelm leaner.
 SPACING EFFECT
Spaced schedules of studying and tasting produce better
long-term retention than a single session or test.

Give frequent tests so that high scores on tests

given immediately after lessons can be maintained
over time.(No “illusion of competence” or
learners’ belief that information has been retained
in long-term memory.)
 GENERATION EFFECT

Learning is enhanced when learners produce answers

than just recognize them.

Give free recall, essay, well written multiple

tests to enable students to recall information
with minimal clues.
 TESTING EFFECT
Testing enhance learning particularly if test are aligned
with important content and frequently given. Test
provide useful feedback.

Give frequent tests to enhance learning and

memory of learner; guide teacher lesson
planning.
 EXAM EXPECTATIONS
Students benefit more from repeated testing when they
expect a final exam.

Create expectation that there will be a comprehensive

test at some future date so learners keep lessons in
memory for future recall.
 ORGANIZATION EFFECT
Outlining, integrating, and synthesizing information
produces better learning than rereading materials and
other passive strategies.

Provide learners with meaningful strategies

(effortful processing) for long-term retention.
 COHERENCE EFFECT

Materials and multimedia should explicitly link related

ideas to be learned. No distracting irrelevant
materials.

Design lessons so that main points are

prominent and irrelevant materials omitted.
 MULTIPLE EXAMPLES
Multiple and varied example improve the understanding
of an abstract concept.

Provide learners with examples of

concepts culled from different academic disciplines
and domains.
 NEGATIVE SUGGESTION EFFECTS

Learning wrong information can be reduced when

feedback is immediate.

Provide immediate feedback after test and

overcome negative suggestions created by recalling
incorrect responses.
- Give multiple short tests than fewer, longer test.
 STORIES AND EXAMPLE CASES
Stories and Example cases tend to be remembered better
than didactic facts and abstract and principles.

Capture important content in stories and

example cases which are easy to comprehend and
remembered.
 FEEDBACK EFFECTS
Students benefit from feedback on their performance in a
learning task.
Timing of feedback depends on task.

Provide feedback to learners according to schedules

that allow them to recognize correct responses without
the aid of feedback.
 DESIRABLE DIFFICULTIES

Challenges make learning and retrieval effortful; thus,

promoting long term recall.

Present information in formats that require

processing (Class lecture may not follow same order as
chapter sequence)
 MANAGEABLE COGNITIVE LOAD

Information presented to the learner should not overload

working memory.

Keep multimedia learning materials free of clutter

with text information and auditory input physically near
the matching visual display and in time to match
animations.
 EXPLANATION EFFECTS
Student benefit more from constructing deep coherent
explanation (mental models) than memorizing shallow
isolated facts.

Prompt students to give self-explanation of

concepts to promote deeper comprehension,
learning, memory and transfer
 COGNITIVE DISEQUILIBRIUM
Cognitive disequilibrium occurs when there are obstacles
to goals, contradictions, conflict anomalous events,
breakdown scenarios, salient gaps in knowledge,
uncertainty, equally attractive alternatives, and others
impasses.

Provide challenges to prevent learner frustration.

 SEGMENTATION PRINCIPLE
Complex lessons should be broken down into manageable
subparts.

Plan the order and amount of new information

to be presented so as not to overwhelm new learners
with too much information at once.
 DEEP QUESTION
Learners benefit more from answering higher order question:
why, why not, how, what if.

Learn and teach students how to ask deep-level-

reasoning question.
 COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY
Cognitive flexibility increase when:
- there are multiple viewpoints, perspectives.
- there are multiple layers of knowledge that interconnect
facts, skills, procedures, plans, deep conceptual
principles.
- trying to solve variety of problems.

Have students work out complex problems;

see connections between layers of facts, processes,
explanation, principles.
 GOLDILOCKS PRINCIPLES
Assignments should not be too hard nor too easy, but at the
right level relative to the student’s level of skills or prior
knowledge .

Tailor materials to the characteristics of the learner.

 DESCOVERY LEARNING
Most students have trouble discovering important principles
on their own without careful guidance, scaffoldings or
materials with well-crafted affordances.

When designing learning materials, provides guides

and explicit instruction s in the principles that are not to
learned.
 ANCHORED LEARNING
Anchored learning (AL) occurs when students work in teams
for several hours or days trying to solve a challenging
practical problems that matters the students.
Example: problemed-based curricula, communities of
practice.

AL weaves together many principle of learning

in coherent way, provide context for learning that
motivates students, stimulates problem solving and
organized social interactions.
 IMPERFECT METACOGNITION
Students rarely have an accurate knowledge of their
cognation; hence, their ability to calibrate their
comprehension, learning and memory should not be
trusted.

Train students about metacognitive and strategies of

self regulated learning and discovery learning.
 SELF-REGULATED LEARNING

Students need training on how to self-regulate their

learning and other cognitive processes.

Provide learners with frequent assessments so that

they become aware of what they do not know; it is
difficult to assess once’s own understanding or
learning without an external assessment .
TEACHING APPROACHES,
MODELS AND
METHODS
 DEFINITIONS
APPROACH
- Viewpoint towards teaching.
- Philosophy of teaching.

MODELS
- Guidelines or sets of strategies on which the approaches to
teaching by instructors are based.

DEVICE
- A “little method”
- Teaching aid or tool to facilitate instruction.
TECHNIQUE
- Personalized style of the teacher in carrying out a given
method or using a device.
- Art and skill of performance.

METHOD (methodology)
- Well-planned, orderly, systematic step-by-step procedure.
- Established way of doing anything.
- Means or manner in which something is to be done, presented or
taught.
 (Some) KINDS OF
INSTRUCTIONAL APPROACHES

1. INDUCTIVE
2. DEDUCTIVE
3. PROBLEM-BASED
4. COOPERATIVE LEARNING
5. VALUES DEVELOPMENT
 INDUCTIVE
INSTRUCTIONAL APPROACHES

 Lesson proceed from specific to general.

MODELS
1.Inquiry
2.Concept Formation
3.Concept Attainment
4.Problem Solving
 DEDUCTIVE
INSTRUCTIONAL APPROACHES

 Lessons proceed from general principles and rules to

detailed and specific examples.

MODELS
1.Lecture 5. Advance Organizer
2.Lecture Discussion 6. Backward Design
3.Teacher Talk 7. Deductive Reasoning
4. Presentation Teaching
 PROBLEM-BASED
INSTRUCTIONAL APPROACHES
Lesson begin with a problem, a dilemma, or a question 
critical thinking process  answer or conclusion.

MODELS
1. Problem-based 4. Case-based
2. Problem Solving 5.Project-based
3. Problem Centered 6.Inquiry learning
 COOPERATIVE LEARNING
INSTRUCTIONAL APPROACHES
 Student work together cooperatively in mixed ability
group to accomplish a set of tasks.

MODELS

1. FORMAL 2.INFORMAL
- Group Investigation -Jigsaw I
- Jigsaw II -Think-Pair-Share
- Student Team Achievement - Role playing
Divisions (STAD)
 COOPERATIVE LEARNING
INSTRUCTIONAL APPROACHES

Lesson design to help students analyze their

values, choose the best internalize positive social
values and resolve value issues.

MODELS
1.Values Analysis
2.Values Clarification
 DIRECT
INSTRUCTION

INTERACTIVE
INSTRUCTION INDIRECT
INSTRUCTION

INDEPENDENT EXPERIENTIAL
INSTRUCTION INSTRUCTION
DIRECT INSTRUCTION
STRUCTURED OVERVIEW
MASTERY LECTURE
EXPLICT TEACHING
DRILLAND PRACTICE
COMPARE AND CONTRAST
DIDACTIC QUESTIONS
DEMONSTRATIONS GUIDES FOR
READING, LISTENING, &
VIEWING
INDIRECT INSTRUCTION
CASE STUDIES
PROBLEM SOLVING
INQUIRY
READING FOR MEANING
REFLECTIVE
DISCUSSION
CONCEPT FORMATION
CONCEPT MAPPING
CONCEPT ATTAINMENT
CLOZE PROCEDURE
EXPERIENTIAL INSTRUCTION
FIELD TRIPS
CONDUCTING
EXPERIMENTS
SIMULATION
GAMES
FGD
FIELD OBSERVATIONS
ROLE PLAYING
MODEL BUILDING
SYNETICS
SURVEYS
 INDEPENDENT
INSTRUCTION
COMPUTER ASSISTED
INSTRUCTION
REPORTS
CORRESPONDENCE
LESSONS
LEARNING CONSTRACTS
HOMEWORK
RESEARCH PROJECT
ASSIGNED QUESTIONS
LEARNING CENTERS
 INTERACTIVE
INSTRUCTION
DEBATES PANEL DISCUSSION
ROLE PLAYING
BRAINSTORMING
PEER PRACTICE
LABORATORY GROUPS
COOPERATIVE
LEARNING
PROBLEM SOLVING
INTERVEWIENG
ADVANCED/GRAPHIC
ORGANIZERS
Teaching Methods
 ADVANCED ORGANIZERS
Developed and systematically studied by David Ausubel
in 1960.
Used to provide support to new information; provided in
advance.
 Direct your attention to what is important in the
coming material.
 Highlight relationships among ideas that will be
presented and remind you of relevant information you
already have.
 Based on Ausebel’s
Subsumption (Assimilation) Theory

-is created through some form representational equivalence

between language symbols and mental context.
Two processes are involved:
1. Reception- employed in meaningful verbal learning.
2. Discovery- involved in concept formation and problem
solving.

Learning is based upon the kinds of superordinate,

representational and combinatorial process that occur during
the reception of information.
 ADVANCE ORGANIZERS
SUBSUMPTION THEORY
 To subsume  incorporate new material into one’s
cognitive structure.
 this is the meaning of learning (for Ausebel)
 When information is subsumed into the learner’s cognitive
structure it is organized hierarchically or linked to other
concepts to create new meaning.

1. CORRELATIVE SUBSUMPTION – new material is an extension

or elaboration of what is already known.
2. DERIVATIVE SUBSUMPTION- new material or relationships
can be derived from the existing structure.
Tool or a mental learning aid to help students
integrate new information with their existing
knowledge, leading to meaningful learning or higher-
order learning (as opposed to rote memorization).

 Means of preparing the learners’ cognitive structure

for the learning experience about to take place.

 Device to activate the relevant schema or conceptual

patterns so that new information can be more readily
subsumed” into the learner’s existing cognitive.
 TYPES OF
ADVANCED ORGANIZERS
 EXPOSITORY ORGANIZERS
- serve as “intellectual scaffold” on which students hang
new unfamiliar information.
- provide a basic concept at the highest level of
abstraction.

 COMPARATIVE ORGANIZERS
- serve to build external connection with existing
knowledge that is relevant to the new information by
reminding the learner about prior knowledge
 FISHBONE DIAGRAM

 Used to helps students understand how a result can have several

convergent causes.
 Can describe some of the details that are associated each cause.
 SPIDER GRAPHIC ORGANIZER

 Used to helps students understand how a result can

have several convergent ideas and causes.
 Can describe some of the details that are
associated each cause
 VENN DIAGRAM

 Used for helping students understand how events, issues,

concepts and particularly categories can be overlapping.
 CYCLE GRAPHIC ORGANIZER

 Used for helping students understand how events or

issues can be circular or cyclic.
STORYBOARD/CHAIN EVENTS GRAPHIC
ORGANIZER

 Used for helping students

understand how events are
sequenced in a story.

 Can describe some of the

details that are associated
each event.
PROBLEM AND SOLUTION GRAPHIC
ORGANIZER

 Used for helping students

understand how a single problem
can have more than one possible
solution.

 Students can brainstorm ideas

for possible solution, and consider
what the different outcomes might
be.
 CLUSTER GRAPHIC
ORGANIZER

 Used for helping students understand how items, issue,

events, or categories can be clustered, some relating more
or less closely to others.
 COMPARE AND CONTRAST GRAPHIC
ORGANIZERS

 Used for helping students understand how issues or

themes can have similar attributes or characteristics.
 FIVE W’s and an H GRAPHIC
ORGANIZER

 Helps children organize their thoughts about Who,

What, Why, When, Where, How.
 KWL GRAPHIC ORGANIZER

 Helps children and teachers to organize their

learning into three categories.
 CAUSE AND EFFECT CHART

 Used for seeking cause of historical events and their

causes. Can be used for showing historical causes and
predicting future events and possible outcomes.
SEQUENCE CHART

 Used to outline a story

or series of events from
beginning, middle, to
end.
DATA COLLECTION CHART

Who..
When.. What..

TOPIC:

How.. Where..
Why..
 ATRIBUTES CHART

TOPIC:

 Describes attributes, like character traits (language),

(social studies), properties (social), and attributes
(math).
 COMPARISON GRID
 Used to compare and contrast two items, or they can be
used to list object cross-referenced with the attributes of
each object.
 EVIDENCE CHART
Position:

Reason 2 Reason 3
Reason 1
 MIND MAP

 Used to represent words, ideas, task, or other items linked to and

arranged around a central key word or idea.
 Used to generate, visualize, structure, and classify ideas; an aid
studying and organizing information, solving problems, and making
decisions.