Physiology - Lipids

PHYSIOLOGY – lipids
• A lipid ( from the Greek lipos, meaning “fat”)

molecule has the identical structure elements as
carb but differs in its linkage and number of atoms.
• The formula C57H110O16 describes the common
lipid stearin with H:O ratio of 18.3:1 for carb , the
ratio remains constant at 2:1.
 Lipid the general term for a heterogeneous group
of compounds, includes oils, fats, waxes, and
related compound.
 Oils become liquid at room temperature, whereas
fats remain solid.
3 main groups
1. Simple - “neutral fats”, consists primarily of
triacylglycerols. The fats are “neutral” because at
the pH of the cell they carry no electrically charged
groups. These completely nonpolar molecules have
no affinity for water.
2. Compound – triacylglycerol components combined
with other chemicals, represent about 10% of the
body’s total fat content.
3. Derived lipids – simple and compound lipids form
derived lipids. Cholesterol, the most widely derived
lipid, exists only in animal tissue and from a dietary
viewpoint classifies as a lipid.
SIMPLE
• A triglyceride (TG, triacylglycerol, TAG, or triacylglyceride) is
an ester derived from glycerol and three fatty acids (from tri-
and glyceride).[1] Triglycerides are the main constituents of body
fat in humans and other animals, as well as vegetable fat.[2] They
are also present in the blood to enable the bidirectional
transference of adipose fat and blood glucose from the liver, and
are a major component of human skin oils.[3]
• There are many different types of triglyceride, with the main
division between saturated and unsaturated types. Saturated
fats are "saturated" with hydrogen — all available places where
hydrogen atoms could be bonded to carbon atoms are occupied.
These have a higher melting point and are more likely to be solid at
room temperature. Unsaturated fats have double bonds between
some of the carbon atoms, reducing the number of places where
hydrogen atoms can bond to carbon atoms. These have a lower
melting point and are more likely to be liquid at room temperature.
SIMPLE
• Triacylglycerols constitutes the major storage form of fat in fat cells
(adipocytes)
• fatty acid - is a carboxylic acid with a long aliphatic chain, which
is either saturated or unsaturated. Most naturally occurring fatty
acids have an unbranched chain of an even number of carbon
atoms, from 4 to 28.
 Saturated fatty acid contains only single covalent bonds between
carbon atoms; all of the remaining bonds attach to hydrogen.
 Saturated fatty acids occur primarily in animal products such as
beef (52%), lamb, pork, chicken, egg yolk, & dairy fats of cream,
milk,butter (62%) & cheese.
 Saturated fats from the plants include coconut oil & palm oil,
vegetable shortening, and hydrogenated margarine; commercially
made cakes, pies,& cookies contain plentiful amounts.
SIMPLE
 A saturated fat is a type of fat in which the fatty acid chains have
all or predominantly single bonds. A fat is made of two kinds of
smaller molecules: glycerol and fatty acids. Fats are made of long
chains of carbon (C) atoms. Some carbon atoms are linked by single
bonds (-C-C-) and others are linked by double bonds (-C=C-
).[1] Double bonds can react with hydrogen to form single bonds.
They are called saturated, because the second bond is broken and
each half of the bond is attached to (saturated with) a hydrogen
atom. Most animal fats are saturated. The fats of plants and fish
are generally unsaturated.[1] Saturated fats tend to have
higher melting points than their corresponding unsaturated fats,
leading to the popular understanding that saturated fats tend to be
solids at room temperatures, while unsaturated fats tend to be liquid
at room temperature with varying degrees of viscosity (meaning
both saturated and unsaturated fats are found to be liquid at body
temperature).
SIMPLE
 Unsaturated fatty acids contain one or more double bonds along
their main carbon chain.
 An unsaturated fat is a fat or fatty acid in which there is at least
one double bond within the fatty acid chain. A fatty acid chain
is monounsaturated if it contains one double bond,
and polyunsaturated if it contains more than one double bond.
 Where double bonds are formed, hydrogen atoms are subtracted
from the carbon chain. Thus, a saturated fat has no double bonds,
has the maximum number of hydrogens bonded to the carbons, and
therefore is "saturated" with hydrogen atoms. In cellular metabolism,
unsaturated fat molecules contain somewhat less energy (i.e.,
fewer calories) than an equivalent amount of saturated fat. The
greater the degree of unsaturation in a fatty acid (i.e., the more
double bonds in the fatty acid) the more vulnerable it is to lipid
peroxidation (rancidity). Antioxidants can protect unsaturated fat
from lipid peroxidation.
SIMPLE
 peroxidation (rancidity); is the oxidative degradation
of lipids. It is the process in which free radicals "steal"
electrons from the lipids in cell membranes, resulting in cell
damage. This process proceeds by a free radical chain
reaction mechanism.
 Antioxidants can protect unsaturated fat from lipid
peroxidation; are compounds that inhibit oxidation.
Oxidation is a chemical reaction that can produce free
radicals, thereby leading to chain reactions that may
damage the cells of organisms. Antioxidants such
as thiols or ascorbic acid (vitamin C) terminate these chain
reactions. To balance the oxidative state, plants and animals
maintain complex systems of overlapping antioxidants, such
as glutathione and enzymes (e.g., catalase and superoxide
dismutase), produced internally, or the dietary antioxidants
vitamin C, and vitamin E.
SIMPLE
• Monounsaturated fatty acid; canola oil, olive oil (77%),
peanut oil, and the oil in almonds, pecans & avocados
• Polyunsaturated fatty acid; safflower, sunflower, soybean &
corn oil.
 Linoleic acid (LA), a carboxylic acid, is
a polyunsaturated omega-6 fatty acid, an 18-carbon chain
with two double bonds in cis configuration. A
shorthand notation like "18:2 (n-6)" or "18:2 cis-9,12" may
be used in literature.[4] It typically occurs in nature as a
triglyceride ester; free fatty acids, the form not combined
with glycerol to form triglyceride, are typically low in
foods.[5] It is very soluble in acetone, benzene, diethyl ether
and ethanol.[2]
 Linoleic acid belongs to one of the two essential fatty acids,
which means that the human body cannot synthesize it from
other food components.
SIMPLE
• Hydrogenation – a chemical process that changes
oils to semisolid fats by bubbling liquid hydrogen
under pressure into vegetable oil. Firmer fats form
because adding hydrogen increases the lipid’s
temperature. Hydrogenated oil behaves like a
saturated fat; most common are lard substittutes
and margarine.
SIMPLE
Triacylglycerol formation
• Esterification – triacylglycerol synthesis or process
• Triacylglycerol synthesis increases following a meal
for two reasons:
1. Food absorption increases blood levels of fatty
acids and glucose
2. Relatively high levels of circulating insulin facilitate
triacylglycerol synthesis.
SIMPLE
Triacylglycerol breakdown
• The term hydrolysis (lipolysis) describes
triacylglycerol catabolism to yield glycerol and the
energy- rich fatty acid molecules
The mobilization of fatty acids via lipolysis
predominates under 4 conditions:
1. Low-to-moderate-intensity exercise
2. Low-calorie dieting or fasting
3. Cold stress
4. Prolonged exercise that depletes glycogen reserves
SIMPLE
• Lipolysis /lɪˈpɒlɪsɪs/ is the breakdown of lipids and
involves hydrolysis of triglycerides into glycerol and
free fatty acids. Predominantly occurring in adipose
tissue, lipolysis is used to mobilize stored energy
during fasting or exercise.
• Free fatty acids: By-products of the metabolism of
fat in adipose tissues
SIMPLE
• Lipolysis also occurs in tissues other than adipocytes;
 Hydrolysis of dietary triacylglycerol occurs in the
small intestine, catalyzed by pancreatic lipase;
lipoprotein lipase, an enzyme located on the walls
of the capillaries, catalyzes the hydrolysis of the
triacylglycerols carried by the blood’s lipoprotein.
 Adjacent adipose tissue and muscle cells “take up”
the fatty acids released by the action lipoprotein
lipase; these fatty acids are resynthesized to
triacylglycerol for energy storage.
SIMPLE
Trans-fatty acids: the unwanted fat
• Trans-fatty acids derive from the partial hydrogenation
of unsaturated corn, soybean, or sunflower oil
• Forms when one of the hydrogen atoms along the
restructured carbon chain moves from its naturally
occurring position to the opposite side of the double
bond that separates 2 carbon atoms
• Rich sources – vegetable shortenings, some margarines,
crackers, candies, cookies, snack foods, fried foods,
baked goods, salad dressings, and other processed
foods made from partially hydrogenated vegetable
oils.
SIMPLE
• Health effects about trans-fatty acids centers on
their possible detrimental effects on serum
lipoprotein
• A diet high in margarine and commercial baked
goods and deep-fried foods prepared with
hydrogenated vegetable oils increases low-density
lipoprotein cholesterol concentration by a similar
amount as a diet high in saturated fatty acids.
• Hydrogenated oils also decrease the concentration
of beneficial high-density lipoprotein cholesterol.
SIMPLE
• The relationship between saturated fatty acid
intake and coronary heart disease risk has
prompted health professionals to recommend 2
courses of action:
1. Replacing at least a portion of the saturated fatty
acids and all trans-fatty acids with
nonhydrogenated monounsaturated and
polyunsaturated oils
2. Balancing energy intake with regular physical
activity to minimize weight gain and obtain the
health benefits of regular exercise.
COMPOUND LIPIDS
• Triacylglycerol components combined with other
chemicals, represent about 10% of the body’s total
fat content.
3 groups
1. Phospholipids
2. Glycolipids
3. Lipoprotein
COMPOUND LIPIDS
• Phospholipids -are a class of lipids that are a major
component of all cell membranes. They can
form lipid bilayers because of
their amphiphilic characteristic. The structure of the
phospholipid molecule generally consists of
two hydrophobic fatty acid "tails" and
a hydrophilic "head" consisting of
a phosphate group. The two components are joined
together by a glycerol molecule.
COMPOUND LIPIDS
Phospholipids
• Modified triacylglycerols, contains one or more fatty
acid molecules joined with a phosphorus-containing
group and one of several nitrogen-containing
molecules.
• These lipids form in all cells, although the liver
synthesizes most of them.
4 main functions:
1. Interacting with both water and lipid to modulate fluid
movement across cell membranes
2. Maintaining the structural integrity of the cell
3. Playing an important role in blood clotting
4. Providing structural integrity to the insulating sheath
that surrounds nerve fibers.
COMPOUND LIPIDS
Phospholipids
• Modified triacylglycerols, contains one or more fatty
acid molecules joined with a phosphorus-containing
group and one of several nitrogen-containing
molecules.
• These lipids form in all cells, although the liver
synthesizes most of them.
4 main functions:
1. Interacting with both water and lipid to modulate fluid
movement across cell membranes
2. Maintaining the structural integrity of the cell
3. Playing an important role in blood clotting
4. Providing structural integrity to the insulating sheath
that surrounds nerve fibers.
COMPOUND LIPIDS
Glycolipids
• are lipids with a carbohydrate attached by a
glycosidic (covalent) bond. Their role is to maintain
the stability of the cell membrane and to facilitate
cellular recognition, which is crucial to the immune
response and in the connections that allow cells to
connect to one another to form tissues.
• Fatty acids that bound with carbohydrate and
nitrogen.
COMPOUND LIPIDS
Lipoprotein
• any of a group of soluble proteins that combine
with and transport fat or other lipids in the blood
plasma.
• Protein spheres formed primarily in the liver when a
protein molecule joins with either triacylglycerols or
phospolipids
• provide the major avenue for transporting lipids in
the blood; if blood lipids did not bind to protein,
they would literally float to the top like cream in
non-homogenized fresh milk instead of circulating
throughout the vascular system.
COMPOUND LIPIDS - Lipoprotein
4 types of Lipoprotein
1. Chylomicrons – form when emulsified lipid droplets
leave the intestine and enter the lymphatic vessels;
liver metabolizes chylomicrons and sends them for
storage in adipose tissue; transport the fat-soluble
vit A,D,E & K.
2. High-density lipoprotein (HDL) – produced in the
liver and small intestine, they contain the highest %
of protein (about 50%) and the least total lipid
(about 20%) and cholesterol (about 20%) of the
lipoprotein.
4 types of Lipoprotein
3. Very low-density lipoprotein (VLDL) – these are
degraded in the liver to produce a LDL; formed in
the liver from fats, carbohydrates, alcohol &
cholesterol; contains the highest % of lipid(95%), of
which about 60% consists of triacylglycerol;
transport triacylglycerol to muscle and adipose
tissue
4. Low-density lipoprotein(LDL) – commonly known as
“bad” cholesterol; normally carries from 60-80%
of the total serum cholesterol & has the greatest
affinity for cells of the arterial wall.
• Low-density lipoprotein(LDL) delivers cholesterol to
arterial tissue where the LDL particles are:
1. Oxidize to alter their physiochemical properties
2. Taken up by macrophages inside the arterial wall to
initiate atherosclerotic plaque development
 LDL oxidation ultimately contributes to smooth
muscle cell proliferation and other unfavorable
cellular changes that damage and narrow arteries.
COMPOUND LIPIDS
HDL vs LDL: a health perspective
• Unlike LDL, HDL protects against heart disease
• HDL acts as a scavenger in the reverse transport of
cholesterol by removing it from the arterial wall
and delivering it to the liver for incorporation into
bile and subsequent excretion via the intestinal tract
• Regular moderate & high-intensity aerobic exercise
and abstinence from cigarette smoking increase
HDL, lower LDL.
DERIVED LIPIDS
• Simple and compound lipids form derived lipids.
• are the substances produced from simple and
compound lipidsthrough the process of hydrolysis.
There are many different types of derived lipids,
including alcohols, monoglycerides, diglycerides,
fatty acids, terpenes, steroids and carotenoids, with
the last three groups being the most common.
• Cholesterol, the most widely known derived lipid,
exists only in animal tissue and from a dietary point
of view classifies as a lipid.
DERIVED LIPIDS - Cholesterol
• Cholesterol does not contain fatty acids; instead it
shares some of lipid’s physical and chemical
characteristics
• Widespread in the plasma membrane of all cells,
originates either through; diet (exogenous cholesterol)
and cellular synthesis (endogenous cholesterol)
• endogenous cholesterol daily synthesis varies between
0.5 and 2.0 g even in a “cholesterol free” diet
• More endogenous cholesterol forms with a diet high in
saturated fatty acids and trans-fatty acids, which
facilitates LDL cholesterol synthesis in the liver; the liver
synthesizes about 70% of the body’s cholesterol
DERIVED LIPIDS - Cholesterol
Functions of cholesterol in bodily functions;
1. Building plasma membranes
2. Serving as a precursor in synthesizing vit D, adrenal
gland hormones, and the sex hormones estrogen,
androgen and progesterone
3. Furnishes a key component for bile synthesis
4. Plays a crucial role in forming tissues, organs, and
body structures during fetal development
 Rich source of cholesterol; egg yolk, red meat,
organ meats, shellfish, dairy products
 Foods of plant origin contain no cholesterol
Recommended Lipid intake
• Between 20 and 35% of caloric intake depending
on the type of lipid consumed
• Focus on weight control and addition of two weekly
serving of fish high in omega-3 fatty acids
• Diet that contains only 20% of total calories from
lipid to reduce risk of cancers of the colon and
rectum, prostate, endometrium, and perhaps breast.
• Curtailing intake of animal food sources rich in
saturated fatty acids reduces preformed cholesterol
intake known to stimulate endogenous cholestrol
synthesis.
Role of lipid in the body
1. Energy source and reserve
2. Protection of vital organs
3. Thermal insulation
4. Vitamin carrier and hunger depressor
Role of lipid in the body - Energy source and reserve
• Fat constitutes the ideal cellular fuel for 3 reasons;
1. It carries a large quantity of energy per unit weight
2. It transports and stores easily
3. It provides a ready source of energy
 Fat provides as much as 80-90% of the energy
requirement of a well-nourished individual at rest.
 1 gram of pure lipid contains about 9cal of energy,
twice that of carbs and protein
 Fat exists as a relatively water-free, concentrated fuel,
whereas glycogen remains hydrated and heavy
relative to its energy content
 For young adults, approximately 15% of the body
mass of males and 25% of that of females consistsof
fat.
Protection of vital organs and Thermal insulation
• Up to 4% of the body’s fat protects against trauma
to vital organs
• Fat stored just below the skin (subcutaneous fat)
provides insulation, permitting individuals to
tolerate extreme cold
• Excess body fat hinders temperature regulation
during heat stress, most notably during sustained
exercise in air, when the body’s heat production can
increase 20x above resting levels; the insulatory
shield from subcutaneous fat retard heat flow from
the body.
Vitamin carrier and hunger depressor
• Consuming approximately 20 g of dietary fat
provides a sufficient source and transport medium
for the fat soluble vit A,D,E & K
• Severely reducing lipid intake depresses the body’s
level of vitamins and ultimately leads to vit
deficiency
• Dietary lipid also facilitates absorption of vit A
precursors from nonlipid plant sources
• It takes about 3.5 hrs after ingesting lipids for the
stomach to empty them.
Fat Dynamics during exercise
 Intracellular and extracellular fat supply between 30 and
80% of the energy for physical activity, depending on
nutritional and fitness status and exercise intensity and
duration.
• Increased blood flow through adipose tissue with exercise
increases the release of FFAs ( free fatty acids) for delivery
to and use by muscle.
• The quantity of fat used for energy in light and moderate
exercise is 3x that compared to resting conditions.
• As exercise becomes more intense ( greater 5 of aerobic
capacity), adipose tissue release of FFAs fails to increase
much above resting levels, leading to a decrease in plasma
FFAs.
• this in turn stimulates increased muscle glycogen used.
• The energy contribution from intramuscular
triacylglycerols ranges between 15 & 35%, with
endurance-trained athletes catabolizing the largest
quantity and a substantial impairment in use among
the obese/type 2 diabetics
• Long-term consumption of a high-fat diet induces
enzymatic adaptations that enhance fat oxidation
during submaximal exercise; this adaptation does
not translate to improved exercise performance
 The major energy for light to moderate exercise
comes from fatty acids released from
triacylglycerol storage sites and delivered to muscle
as FFAs and intramuscular triacylglycerol.
• The start of exercise produces a transient initial
drop in plasma FFA concentration because of
increased FFA uptake by active muscles
• An increased FFA release from adipose tissue
follows owing to:
1. Hormonal stimulation by the sympathetic nervous
system
2. A decrease in plasma insulin levels.
 During moderate intensity exerrcise, approximately
equal amounts of carb and fat supply energy; when
exercise continues at this level for more than 1 hr, fat
catabolism gradually supplies a greater % of energy;
this coincides with the progression of glycogen
depletion
 Carbohydrate availability also influences fat use for
energy
• With adequate glycogen reserves, carbohydrate
becomes the preferred fuel during intense aerobic
exercise because of its more rapid rate of catabolism
• Toward the end of prolonged exercise ( glycogen
nearly depleted), fat, mainly as circulating FFA,
supplies 80% of the total energy requirement.
 The increase in fat catabolism during prolonged
exercise probably results from a small drop in
blood sugar and decrease in insulin ( a potent
inhibitor of lipolysis), with a corresponding increase
in glucagon output by the pancreas
• In the first hour, fat supplied about 50% of the
energy; by the third hour, fat contributed up to
70% of the total energy requirement
 Exercise intensity govern fat’s contribution to the
metabolic mixture
 Increased exercise intensity produced an eventual
crossover in the balance of fuel use – total energy from
all sources of fat breakdown remained essentially
unchanged
• More intense exercise required added energy from
blood glucose and muscle glycogen
• Total energy from fats during exercise at 85% of
maximum did not differ from exercise at 25%
 Highlight the major role of carbohydrate, primarily
muscle glycogen, plays as a preferential fuel for high-
intensity aerobic exercise
Exercise training and Fat use
• Regular aerobic exercise profoundly improves long-
chain fatty acid oxidation, particularly from
triacylglycerols within active muscle, during mild-to-
moderate-intensity exercise
7 factors that can produce trng-induced increases in fat
catabolism in exercise;
1. Facilitated fatty acid mobilization from adipose tissue
through increased rate of lipolysis within adipocytes
2. Proliferation of capillaries in trained muscle that
increases the total number and density of these
microvessels for energy substrate delivery
3. Improved transport of FFAs through the muscle fiber’s
plasma membrane
Exercise training and Fat use
4. Increased fatty acid transport within the muscle cell,
mediated by carnitine and carnitine acyltransferase
5. Increased size and number of mitochondria
6. Increased quantity of enzymes involved in ß-
oxidation, citric acid cycle metabolism, and the
electron-transport chain within specifically trained
muscle fibers
7. Maintenance of cellular integrity and function,
which enhances endurance performance
independent of conservation of glycogen reserves.
Summary
• Saturated fatty acids contain as many hydrogen atoms as
chemically possible; saturated describes this molecule with
respect to hydrogen. Saturated fatty acids exist primarily in
animal meat, egg yolk, dairy fats, & cheese. A large
saturated fatty acid intake elevates blood cholesterol
concentration and promotes coronary heart disease.
• Unsaturated fatty acids contain fewer hydrogen atoms
attached to the carbon chain. Unlike saturated fatty acids,
double bonds connect carbon atoms; these fatty acids are
either monounsaturated or polyunsaturated with respect to
hydrogen. Increasing the diet’s proportion of unsaturated
fatty acids protects against coronary heart disease.
• Lowering blood cholesterol ( esp. that carried by LDL
cholesterol) provides significant heart disease protection.
Summary
• Dietary lipid currently provides about 36% of total
energy intake. Prudent recommendation suggest a level
of 30% or less for dietary lipid, of which 70 to 80%
should consists of unsaturated fatty acids.
• Lipids provide the largest nutrient store of potential
Energy for biologic work. They also protect vital
organs, provide insulation from the cold, and transport
the four fat-soluble vits A,D,E, % K.
• Fat contributes 50-70% of the energy requirement
during light & moderate-intensity exercise. Stored fat (
intramuscular and derived from adipocytes) plays an
increasingly important role during prolonged exercise.
Fatty acid molecules (mainly circulating FFAs) provide
more than 80% of the exercise energy requirements.
Summary
• Carbohydrate depletion reduces exercise intensity
to a level determined by how well the body
mobilizes and oxidizes fatty acids.
• Aerobic trng increases long-chain fatty cid
oxidation during mild to moderate intensity
exercise, primarily fatty acids from triacylglycerols
within active muscle.
• Enhanced fat oxidation with trng spares glycogen;
this allows trained individuals to exercise at a
higher absolute level of submaximal exercise
before they experience the fatiguing effects of
glycogen depletion.

Physiology - Lipids

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PHYSIOLOGY – lipids

• A lipid ( from the Greek lipos, meaning “fat”)

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