07 Gas Handling

Upstream Process
Engineering Course
7. Gas Handling
Upstream Process Engineering Course Prepared by Genesis Oil and Gas Consultants Ltd Gas Handling 1
Units and Standard Conditions
Common Gas Units
mmscf, MMSCF, MMCF - one million standard cubic feet
BE CAREFUL!
In English units MM means million
In metric units M means “mega” or 10^6
Standard Conditions (Pressure & Temperature)

English P= 14.7 psia, T = 60°F (15.56°C) = 520°R
Metric P = 101.325 Kpa (1 atm), T = 15 °C = 288 K
Normal P = 101.325 Kpa (1 atm), T = 0°C = 273K
Volume to Mass conversions

English: 379 ft3/lb-mol 2626 lbmol/MMscf
Metric: 23.96 m3/kmol 41470 kmol/106 std m3
1 MMscfd = 110 lbmol/hr

1 x 106 std m3/d = 1739 kmol/h
Gas Handling
• Gas Management
1st Stage 2nd Stage Export
Compression Compression Compression
– compress to export gas to market Export
– reinject for reservoir support

Gas Lift
– reinject to improve recovery
• miscible/immiscible drive Re-injection
Gas from Lean Glycol
• WAG (Water alternating gas) Separators
– reinject into separate formation Dehydration

Column
– compress to recover valuable NGLs
NGLs NGLs NGLs
– use as fuel
– flare Rich Glycol
• Outcome is application specific

Typical Gas Handling Arrangement
Compressors
Axial Compressor
Centrifugal Compressor
Reciprocating Compressors
Screw Compressor
Vertical Split
Horizontal Split
Flow through Centrifugal Compressor
Discharge
Diffuser
Minimum width of
suctio last impeller passage
n is ~ 4mm
Leakage flow here opposes

Impeller centrifugal force, causes
turbulence
Inlet guide
vane
Seal Chamber
End thrust generated Opposed by the

IS
by Impellers balance Piston
Compressor Comparison
• Reciprocating: • Centrifugal:
– Greater flexibility in capacity – Lower maintenance expense

and pressure range – Greater continuity of service
– Higher compressor efficiency and dependability
and lower power cost – Less operating attention
– Capability of delivering higher – Greater volume capacity per
pressures unit of plot area
– Capability of handling smaller – Adaptability to gas turbine
volumes drivers
– Less sensitive to changes in
gas composition and density
Centrifugal Compressors
• Operation and Control – Compressor Operation Characteristics:
– Variable speed
Head (adiabatic or polytropic)

Surge
– Constant speed - Flow reversal
Lines of constant
adiabatic or
- Damages machine polytropic efficiency
• discharge throttling Surge Line
0.65
• suction throttling Control Line
0.70
• inlet guide vanes A
A1 0.65
– Surge / Stonewall Stonewall
B
– Seal Systems B1
C Constant Speed Lines
• seal oil 105%
• dry gas seals Normal
D 100%
Duty Point
– Lubricating oil 95%
– (Inter) cooling
– Blowdown Inlet Volumetric Flowrate
– Vibration – Compressor will shut down and blowdown at loss

of seal oil.
– Rotor dynamics
– Typical seal oil run down time is 5 to 19 minutes
– Critical speed
Flow Limits
Two conditions associated with centrifugal compressors are surge (pumping) and
stone-wall (choked flow). At some point on the compressor’s operating curve there
exists a condition of minimum flow/maximum head where the developed head is
insufficient to overcome the system resistance. This is the surge point. When the
compressor reaches this point, the gas in the discharge piping back-flows into the
compressor. Without discharge flow, discharge pressure drops until it is within the
compressor’s capability, only to repeat the cycle. The repeated pressure
oscillations at the surge point should be avoided since it can be detrimental to the
compressor. Surging can cause the compressor to overheat to the point the
maximum allowable temperature of the unit is exceeded. Also, surging can cause
damage to the thrust bearing due to the rotor shifting back and forth from the
active to the inactive side.
“Stonewall” or choked flow occurs when sonic velocity is reached at any point in
the compressor. When this point is reached for a given gas, the flow through the
compressor cannot be increased further without internal modifications.
Anti-Surge Control
• Anti-Surge Control Systems 100
– Minimum Flow Control. Suitable for fixed

95
90
85
speed machines only. Impractical and 80
75 Operating Point
wasteful for variable speed. 70 Dev
65
– Flow ΔP Control. Series of control points 60
55
Head
50
at differing speeds gives surge control line 45
40
of the form y = mx + c. Recycle valve 35
30
modulated to ensure operating point is not 25 SOL RTL
Minim um Flow
20 Control Line
to the left of this line. Simple and robust. 15 Surge Lim it
Surge Control Line
10 Line
– CCC control. Uses two additional lines 5
0
Allows more efficient (closer to surge limit 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90
Flow
line (SLL)) and responsive control
• Surge Control Line (SCL). Uses PI control to manage normal load changes.
• Recycle Trip Line (RTL). Aggressive control, acts as flow approaches surge line. Recycle valve opened in
steps by timer delay until RTL is re-crossed when PI control is reactivated. Should never be re-set.
• Safety On Line (SOL). If SOL is crossed surge is assumed to have occurred. Incident is logged and the
controller moves all control lines to the right. Can be re-set (after investigation into incident cause).
– CCC uses deviation (DEV) between operating point and SCL to determine compressor status.
Centrifugal Compressors
Lube Oil System
Piston reciprocating compressors are the most common type of positive displacement
compressors. They are available both in single and double-acting design in various
configurations.
Gas is drawn into the cylinder usually through a self-acting valve which is opened and
closed by pressure difference. After compression, the gas leaves via a self-acting
discharge valve. The valve is comprised of a seat, valve guard, plates and springs. The
plate moves between the guard and seat aided by the springs which help to accelerate
closure. The valve is fully open when held against the guard and fully closed when held
against the seat. Some less common designs have cam-controlled or rotary slide valves.
More detail on valves is given later.
Reciprocating compressors can be supplied as lubricated or oil-free designs. Oil-free

compressors have piston rings and wear bands fitted. Trunk type oil-free compressors
have dry crank cases with permanently lubricated bearings. Crosshead types have
lengthened piston rods which keep oil wetted parts away from the compression space.
Other types of positive displacement compressor are oil-free labyrinth piston compressors
(no piston rings are fitted, the cylinder wall to piston seal is achieved by labyrinth seals)
and diaphragm compressors.
Single-acting Double-acting
1- piston 4- connecting rod

Compressor valve
2- piston rod 5. crankshaft with counter-weight
3- cross-head
Single-acting
Compression occurs only on one side of the piston and only once per revolution of the
crankshaft. These machines are normally referred to as trunk type compressors.
Examples of cylinder layouts are shown on the next slide. Single-acting compressors
are usually of the enclosed type where the piston is directly driven by a connecting rod
working off a crankshaft, both of which are enclosed in an externally pressure-tight
crankcase.
Double-acting
Compression occurs alternately on both sides of the piston, twice during each revolution
of the crankshaft. These machines are normally referred to as crosshead type
compressors. Examples of cylinder layouts are shown on the next slide.
Compressor Construction • The three most common suction and
discharge valves in reciprocating
• Number of cylinders ranges from 1 – 16 compressors are
– The poppet valve, a cage serves as both
• Where 4 or more cylinders are used a V, a valve seat, stem guide and spring
W or radial arrangement is used. retainer. A spring, dashpot or bleeder
• Compressor cylinders are normally cast arrangement is used to limit and damp
in close-grained iron. Larger valve travel. These are slow response
valves and only used on slow speed
compressors will usually be fitted with compressors.
a replaceable cylinder liner.
– The ring plate valve was described
• Two types of piston are commonly earlier.
used, automotive and double-trunk. – Flexing valves vary in design but
Automotive type pistons are used where typically would consist of a seat, ribbon
the suction valves are located on the strips and a valve guard. This type of
cylinder head and double-trunk where valve is the feather valve. The ribbon
the suction gas enters through ports in strips or reeds flex under pressure and
the cylinder walls. as for the ring plate Valve operates
under pressure difference
• Crankshafts in larger compressors are of the
crank-throw type. These are mainly
fabricated from forged steel or alloy cast iron.
Smaller compressors tend to use an eccentric
shaft.
• Bearing journals are highly polished and case
hardened where aluminium or brass bearings
are used. Usually plain bearings are found on
crankshafts, however, main bearings can be
of the roller or ball anti-friction type.
• In order to prevent leakage of gas (and oil)
from the crankcase or air into the crankcase it
is common to fit a self adjusting seal. The
spring loaded seal nose is held hard against
the polished seal plate. An oil film between
the two provides a gas-tight seal. The nose is
sealed to the crankshaft by the rubber gasket
Compressor capacity control
There are a number of means of

controlling compressor capacity
• Variable speed shaft drive.
• Suction valve regulation, a claw
mechanism holds the valve plates open
when gas demand is low (see adjacent).
• Clearance pocket control
• Inlet throttling.
• Bypass control
• Cylinder unloading by bypassing the
discharge from one or more cylinders
back to suction line.
10. gas to and from unloading device
Compressor Performance
In order to understand how a reciprocating compressor performs. A few key concepts

must be understood
• The compression cycle
• Volumetric efficiency
• The clearance volume and the effects of clearance
• Wiredrawing
• Cylinder heating
• Piston and valve leakage
• Isothermal versus isentropic compression
• Water-jacketing the cylinder
The compression cycle
The compression cycle is shown in

the adjacent figure.
a) The piston is at top dead centre with

suction and discharge valves closed.
b) The piston has travelled down the
cylinder and the suction valves open.
c) The piston is at bottom dead centre
with suction and discharge valves
closed.
d) The piston has travelled back up the
cylinder and the discharge valves
open.
The cycle is shown on the theoretical
time-pressure diagram. At point A the
piston is at top dead centre. The
pressure is maintained by the gas in the
clearance space holding the valves
closed. On the suction stroke from A-B
the pressure is reduced as the gas
expands to point B. Here, the gas in the
suction line is at a higher pressure than
the cylinder and the suction valves
open. From B-C the cylinder is filled
with gas at suction pressure until point
C when the suction valves close usually
under spring action. Compression takes
place from C-D. At point D the
pressure in the cylinder is higher than
the gas in the head of the compressor
and the discharge valves open. Gas
flows until the piston reaches point A
again and the cycle is complete with the
crankshaft having completed one full
revolution
A typical compression cycle is shown

here on a pressure-volume diagram.
The points A,B,C and D depict the
piston at the same position as on the
time-pressure diagram above.
Volumetric efficiency
ηv= Volumetric efficiency (%)
The actual volume of gas transferred Vact = actual volume of suction gas
from the suction line is the actual compressed per unit time
displacement of the cylinder. The ratio Vp = compressor piston displacement
of this actual displacement to piston
displacement is known as the total
volumetric efficiency of the compressor
Vact
V  x 100
Vp
Effects of clearance
When the piston has reached the end of the compression stroke, some gas is retained in the
clearance space in the cylinder after the discharge valves have closed. When the
compression cycle restarts, there is already a volume of gas in the cylinder which re-
expands and reduces the available volume for suction gas. Referring back to the pressure-
volume diagram, the clearance volume and re-expanded gas volume are shown as Va and Vb
respectively. Obviously, as the clearance volume increases, the volumetric efficiency
reduces.
Wiredrawing
Wiredrawing is defined as a restriction of area for a flowing fluid, causing a loss in

pressure by (internal; and external) friction without loss of heat or performance of work;
throttling.
As gas passes through the suction valves a mild throttling takes place which means that
the cylinder is at a slightly lower pressure than the suction line and thus less volume of
suction gas is transferred than if the gas was at suction line pressure. This reduces the
volumetric efficiency of the compressor as the actual volume of suction vapour
transferred is reduced. Wiredrawing is independent of compression ratio being a
function of gas velocity through the valves and passages of the compressor. As velocity
increase the effects of wiredrawing increase. The gas velocity is dependent upon valve
characteristics, the gas and the speed of the compressor. As the compressor rpm
increases so does the piston displacement and velocity of the gas passing through the
valves. This in turn amplifies the effects of wiredrawing.
Cylinder heating Piston and valve leakage
The compression process generates heat Leakage back through suction or

as work is transferred into the gas from discharge valves or around the piston
the piston. Some of this heat is retained will decrease the gas transferred by the
in the cylinder walls. Heat is conducted compressor. Well maintained
from the cylinder walls to the gas compressors with valves and pistons in
entering from the suction line. Heat is good condition will not suffer from
also generated from friction by the high leakage rates.
turbulent movement of gas in the
cylinder. The net effect of this is that Back flow through valves is minimised
suction gas is heated and expands in the by designing them to close promptly by
cylinder. This reduces the amount of spring assistance. However, spring
gas which can be transferred from the tension increases wire drawing so the
suction line. Cylinder heating increases spring rating is critical.
as the compression ratio increases.
This reduction in actual volume of gas
in the cylinder reduces the volumetric Back leakage is a function of
efficiency of the compressor compression ratio and compressor
speed.
Isothermal versus isentropic compression
The pressure-volume diagram attached

shows the compression cycle. Noting
the work done during compression is
equal to the area under the curve, it can
be seen that an isothermal (constant
temperature) compression process
requires less work input than an
isentropic (constant entropy) process.
The reduction in work is shown by the
hatched area. Clearly this is more
desirable since less work input to the
compressor is required. A water jacket
on the cylinder which draws heat from
the gas during compression will move
the process way from isentropic toward
isothermal compression.
Reciprocating Compressor
Suction
Con-rod Distance
Valves
Piece
Crank
Piston
Discharg
Crosshead Wiper Packing e Valves
Screw Compressors
Screw compressors are positive
displacement compressors. Twin screw
machines compress gas between two
meshing helically grooved rotors.
Single screw machines have a single
screw which meshes with two gate
rotors.
In twin screw compressors the male

rotor is the driving rotor with a series of
lobes, these mesh with matching flutes
on the female non-driven rotor. The
compression process is described
below.
Screw Compressors
Screw Compressors
Single screw compressors consist of a
single screw with two gaterotors. Gas
flows through the suction port into the
exposed grooves at each end. With
rotation, gaterotor teeth enter and seal
the grooves in the screw sequentially
trapping gas in the chambers. The gas
is continually compressed until the
leading edge of the screw passes the
discharge port. Gas is then discharged
until the gaterotor reduces the effective
volume to zero. Since there are two
gaterotors, the compression process
occurs twice per revolution thus
doubling the capacity of the machine.
1- gaterotor
2- screw rotor
Screw Compressors
Capacity Control Mechanism
Capacity control is accomplished by a slide valve which moves parallel to the rotor axis and
changes the area of the opening in the bottom of the rotor casing. This, in effect, lengthens or
shortens the region of compression of the rotor and further acts to return gas to the suction side,
while bypassing compressed gas. Variable speed drives can also control the capacity.
Screw Compressors
Compressor Performance
Dynamic compressors use terms such as polytrophic head and temperature lift to describe their
performance capabilities. These are not normally applied to positive displacement machines, screw
compressors are usually described in terms of pressure ratio.
Basic compression characteristics are
V1 Volume when compressio n begins

Volume ratio Vi  
V2 Volume when compressio n ends
This may be a fixed ratio or a variable ratio where a slide valve is installed as described above fro capacity
control.
P2 Pressure at discharge
Pressure ratio i  
P1 Pressure at suction
Screw Compressors
The isentropic relationship between the volume and pressure ratios described in
equation 2 of the section on Compression Thermodynamics.
Screw compressors are normally high speed rotating machines and as such due to the
short residence time of the gas during compression, the process is generally regarded as
reversible adiabatic.
Compressor Selection
• Recip.-multi stage:
– Gas export / reinjection
• Recip.-single stage:
– Fuel gas compression
• Diaphragm:
– Oil free (air) compression
• Rotary compressors:
– Air (vacuum) systems
• Centr. Single stage:
– Gas pipeline boosting
• Centr. Multi stage:
– Gas export / reinjection
• Axial:
– Pilpeline boosting
– Air separation
Compressor Selection
Is the discharge volume flow
greater than 300m3/h
YES NO
Will the mean molar mass Is the pressure rise

change by more than 20% YES YES greater than 7 bar
Is the pressure rise

greater than 20 bar
NO NO NO
YES
Use a Use a Use a Use a

CENTRIFUGAL RECIPROCATING SCREW LIQUID RING
Compressor Compressor Compressor Compressor
Compression Thermodynamics
• The basic thermodynamic
H Enthalpy change (kJ)
equation for compression is: H   VdP  Wtheor [1] V Gas volume (m3)
P Pressure (kPa)
WtheorTheoretical work done (kJ)
• For the isentropic
P V k  const  P1 V1
k [2] k Ratio of specific heats (Cp/Cv)
compression process: m Mass (kg)
Z Compressibility factor (-)
P2
1 R Gas constant
• Substitution of [2] into [1] H  P1 k V1   P
1
k
 dP [3] (=8.314 kJ/kmol.K)
yields: P1 T Temperature (K)
1 MW Molweight (kg/kmol)
P k V1  k 1
  P2 k  P2 k 
k 1
• or (solving): H  1 [4]
 k 1   
 
 k 
 k 1

P1  V1   
P2 k 
• Equation [4] is rewritten as: H       1 [5]
 k  1    P1  
   
 k 
 k 1

m  Z1  R  T1   
P2 k 
• Substitution of the ideal gas H       1 [6]
 k 1 
  MW   1  
P
law into [5] yields:  
 k 
Compression Thermodynamics
 k 1

Z a  R  T1   P2  k 
• Equation [6] (previous slide) is usually written as: H isen       1 [7]
 k 1 
  MW   1  
P
 
 k 
which is the basic “head” equation for compressors, in which Z a is the average compressibility
((Z1+Z2/2)) and Hisen is the isentropic head (in kJ/kg). For the isentropic head in meters:
1000  H isen kJ / kg 
H isen meters 
g  9.81
• In a steady state situation the entropy change in a system is written as: S = Q/Tb + Sp [8]
in which Q is the heat exchanged with surroundings, T is the absolute temperature of the system
boundaries and Sp is the entropy production, reflecting the irreversibility of the process.
• Isentropic Process: S = 0, reversible (Sp = 0) and

adiabatic process (Q = 0)
• Polytropic Process: S  0, irreversible (Sp  0),
entropy is produced by internal
friction in the system
n 1 k 1
 n - Polytropic coefficient (n > k)
n k  E poly E - Polytropic efficiency Compression Curves
Compression
n 1
• P  n  m  h poly
Centrifugal Compressors T2  T1   2  W
– cover a wide operating range  P1  E poly
– n 1 k 1
extensive use in upstream oil & gas 
industry n k  E poly
– main suppliers For paraffin gases k may be estimated from:
• Dresser
k = 1.3 - 0.31 ( - 0.55)
• Nuovo Pignone
• Sulzer hpoly Polytropic head (kJ/kg)
T Temperature (K)
– good reliability compared to Za Average compressibility (Z1 + Z2)/2
reciprocating machines R Gas constant (8.314 kJ/kmol.K)
– not suitable for high head low flow P Pressure (Pa)
n Polytropic coefficient
applications
k Ratio of specific heats (Cp/Cv)
– compression ratio limited by discharge MW Molweight (kg/kmol)
temperature, in turn defined by materials W Gas power (kW)
m Mass flow (kg/s)
– Head equation:
 n 1
 Epoly Polytropic efficiency - Function of
T1  Z a  R P 
  2   1
n volumetric inlet flow varying from approx.
h poly 
 n 1   P1   0.6 to 0.8 (compressor specific)
   MW    Gas relative density (-)
 n  1/2 Suction/Discharge
Calculation Example
• 10 MMscfd of hydrocarbon gas (MW = 22.0 kg/kmol) is or Hpoly = 175.5 * 1000 / 9.81 = 17890 m
compressed from 4 bara to 15 bara. Calculate the required
3.0 175.5
compressor power and discharge temperature. The W  700 kW
polytropic efficiency of the compressor is 75%. Za = 0.98. 0.75
1.331
T1 = 30oC
 15  1.33
T2  303     421 K  148o C
4
• Rule of thumb: 1 MMsm3/day = 1739 kmol/hr
10 MMscfd = 0.283 MMsm3/day = 492 kmol/hr • If the same compressor were to compress a heavier gas, e.g.
MW = 30, what would be the discharge pressure?
 Mass flow: 492 * 22 / 3600 = 3.0 kg/s
• The head is unaffected, because the head is only dependent
on impeller (tip) speed:
Specific gravity: 22.0 / 28.96 = 0.76  1.33  1 
1.331 175.5     30
 P2  1.33
 1.33 
Ratio of specific heats (estimated):     1  P2  22 bara
4 303  0.98  8.314
k = 1.3 - 0.31* (0.76 - 0.55) = 1.23
• The required power would be: 700 * (30/22) = 955 kW
Polytropic coefficient:
• Note that the compression ratio is usually limited to 4
n 1 1.23  1 (although can be higher for high MW gases). If the
  0.25  n  1.33
n 1.23  0.75 compression ratio is higher then 4, more stages are required
(with intercooling). The number of compression stages (r) can
 1.331

303  0.98  8.314  15  1.33
 1  175.5 kJ / kg
be estimated from:
h poly    
 1.33  1    ln  P2 
1
4  P2  r
   22.0  
r 
   4 or P1 
 1.33   1
P ln 4
Design
• Mechanical design undertaken by machine supplier
• Design will account for;
– Thermodynamics • Specific speed:
– Aerodynamics
N  q 0.5
– Rotor Dynamics Ns 
– Stress/loads H 0.75
• Process engineer will specify;
N speed (rpm)
– Number of stages
q volumetric flowrate ft3/s)
– Flowrate
H head (ft)
– Gas Composition
– Inlet Pressure and Temperature
– Discharge Pressure • Specific diameter:
– Range in volumetric rate
d H
0.25
– Range in molecular weights
ds  0 .5
• Major Design Variables q
– Speed
d impeller diameter (ft)
– Impeller Diameter
– Number of impellers
– Impeller Design
– Head per impeller
Train Design
Export
Gas Lift
Re-injection
Gas from Lean Glycol
Separators
Dehydration
Column
NGLs NGLs NGLs
Rich Glycol
Single Shaft – what speed?

Optimum Specific Speed
For peak efficiency
Train Design
Compressor 1st Stage 2nd Stage Export

Suction Volume 307 77 9.1
Export
Flow (ft3/S)
Gas Lift
Mol Weight 35 29.5 23.2
Suction 55 258 600 Re-injection
Gas from
Pressure (psia) Separators
Lean Glycol
Suction 60 80 80 Dehydration
Temperature Column
(DegF)
NGLs NGLs NGLs
Discharge 275 638 2500
Pressure (psia)
Rich Glycol
Compression 5 2.5 4.2
Ratio
Single Shaft – what speed?
Train Design Sensitivity study at three speeds – 5000, 8000 and 14000 rpm .
Compressor 1st Stage 2nd Stage Export Compressor 1st Stage 2nd Stage Export
5000 rpm 8000 rpm
No Impellers 4 3 8 No Impellers 4 3 8
Impeller Diameter 2.94 2.68 2.49 Impeller Diameter 1.95 1.68 1.548
(Ft) (Ft)
Head (Ft) 40200 25690 57729 Head (Ft) 40200 25690 57729
Specific Speed 87.3 49.3 30.1 Specific Speed 139.6 78.9 48.1
Efficiency 0.767 0.655 0.564 Efficiency 0.768 0.7723 0.641
Power (KW) 7800 5930 8700 Power (KW) 7860 4800 7550
Total Power (KW) 20350

Compressor 1st Stage 2nd Stage Export
14000 rpm Lowest Power
No Impellers 4 3 8
Impeller Diameter 1.62 1.33 0.997
(Ft) Fit gear boxes and drive stages at different
speeds – Total Power 19010 KW
Head (Ft) 40200 25690 57729
Specific Speed 244.4 138.0 84.3
Efficiency 0.635 0.782 0.732
Power (KW) 9620 4880 6410

Compressor Drivers
• Drivers:
– Electric Motors
– Gas Engines
– Diesel Engines
– Gas Turbines
– Steam Turbines
– Expansion Turbines
• Driver selection influenced by:

– Compatibility with power load
– Fuel availability Compressor / Gas Turbine
– Weight & Volume limitations
– Reliability/Availability Requirements
Compressor Drivers
Electric motor drives
Depending on the size and type of

compressor, electric motor drives
generally have one of the following
three arrangements-
Driver Selection
Is gas fuel
Yes available on
site?
No
Is dual fuel
capability
required? No
Yes
Is power per Is power per Is power per

driver > 3.5 driver > 3.5 driver > 3.5
MW ? MW ? MW ?
No No No
Yes Is weight Yes Is weight Yes Is weight

capacity capacity capacity
limited? limited? limited?
Yes Yes Yes
No No No
Consider gas Consider dual fuel Consider gas Consider gas Consider gas Consider diesel
turbine engine turbine engine turbine engine
Cooling / Scrubbing / Compression
Saturated vapour to next stage compression/

dehydration/sweetening
Cooler Compressor
NGLs to separation
Scrubber
• Compression will heat the gas and therefore requires (interstage/after) cooling to reduce power and
also to avoid exceeding discharge temperature limits
• Cooling of the saturated vapour to compressor inlet conditions causes condensation of heavier
components and water
• Leaner gas from scrubber with reduced cricondenbar
• Cooler outlet temperature typically 25-30 DegC set by hydrates, cooling medium temperature, and
heat of compression from upstream compressor
• NGL recycle can significantly affect system heat and mass balance
BP Amoco North Sea Assets
Compressor Inventory
BP Amoco North Sea Assets– Compressor Inventory
Asset Service Nos/Duty Manufacturer Model Seal Driver
Andrew LP 1 x 100% Sulzer RB 35-3+4 D? ABB – GT35

HP (1st stage) 1 x 100% Sulzer RB 35-3+4 D? Same shaft
Export 1 x 100% Sulzer RB28-6 (HP 2nd stage) D? Same shaft
Reinjection 1 x 100% Sulzer RB28-4 DTR EM
Bruce LP 1 x 100% Dresser Rand 26 08 B3/3 D? EM

Export 3 x 50% Cooper RC5/4B D? RB211
Reinjection (wef 3Q98) 1 x 100% Nuevo Pignone DT RB211
ETAP LP 2 x 50% Demag Delaval 6B26 DT EM

Export 2 x 70% Demag Delaval 6B26 DT EM
Reinjection 1 x 100% Nuevo Pignone BCL305C DTR EM
Forties A/D NGL 2 x 75% ? Dresser Rand MTGB724 W Rustons TB4500

Deep Gas Lift 1 x 100% Dresser Rand 2608B W EM
Deep Gas Lift (kick off) 1 x 100% Dresser Rand RECIP W EM
Forties C/D NGL/Shallow Gas Lift 2 x 100% Dresser Rand MTGB724 W Rustons TB4500
Foinaven LP (1st stage) 2 x 50% Dresser Rand 451B6 (TP28 seals) D? EM

IP (2nd stage) 2 x 50% Dresser Rand 451B7 (TP28 seals) D? Same shaft
Reinj/Gas Lift (3rd stage) 2 x 50% Dresser Rand 272B4/4 (XP seals) DT EM
Gyda LP 1 x 100% Delaval Stork 6BK22 W EM

HP 1 x 100% Delaval Stork 6BK22 W Same shaft
Harding LP (1st) 1 x 100% Demag 8B22 D? EM
HP Gas Lift/Reinj 1 x 100% Demag 6B22 D? Same shaft
Kinneil Terminal Trains 1 & 2 – Separator 2 x 25% Sulzer RZ 35-4+4 W Sulzer S1

Separator spare 1 x 25% Sulzer RZ 35-4+5 W EM (Laurence Scott J25)
Trains 1 & 2 – Flowtank 2 x 25% Sulzer R56-6, R28-6 W Sulzer S1
Flowtank spare 1 x 25% Sulzer R56-6, R28-7 W EM (Laurence Scott J25)
Train 3 – LP 1 x 50% Demag Delaval 3B51 D EGT Tornado
LP Spare 1 x 50% Demag Delaval 3B52 D EM (GEC Unipack)
Train 3 – MP/HP 1 x 50% Demag Delaval 7BK38 DT EGT TB5000 (5400 uprate)
MP/HP Spare 1 x 50% Demag Delaval 7BK38 DT EM (GEC Unipack)
Magnus LP Flash 3 x 50% Sulzer R28-5 W EM

HP 3 x 50% Sulzer RB28-4 W Same shaft
Miller LP Flash Gas 1 x 100% Sulzer R45-5 W EM

MP flash Gas 1 x 100% Sulzer RB45-6 W Same shaft
Gas Regenerator 2 x 100% Atlas Copco GT06T150 W EM
Export 2 x 50% Dresser Rand 361 B4/4 W EM
Reinjection (wef 6/97) 1 x 100% Sulzer DT EM
Schiehallion HP1/HP2 2 x 50% Howden WCVT5510/13258 ? EM

HP3 (to gas lift & reinj compr) 2 x 50% Demag 5B-26 DT EM
Reinjection 1 x 100% Demag 3B-22 DTR EM
SNS (Cleeton) Export 1 x 100% Dresser Rand DT ABB GT35

SNS (Easington) West Sole Suction 2 x 100% Cooper RC6-5B ? Rolls Avon
Thistle LP Gas Lift 1 x 100% Demag 8B26 DT EM

HP Gas Lift 1 x 100% Demag 7B26 DT EM
Ula LP 1 x 100% Delaval Stork 4B22 W EM

Export 1 x 100% Delaval Stork 7B22 W Same shaft
Reinjection (wef 10/97) 1 x 100% Sulzer DTR EM
Wytch Farm Sales Gas Export 2 x 50% Sundstrand LMC331P W EM

Refrigeration 1 x 100% Delaval Stork 8BL37/44 W EM
LP Flash Gas 1 x 100% Delaval Stork 5B22 W EM (same shaft)
HP Gas Flash 1 x 100% Delaval Stork 6B22 W EM (same shaft)
Flash Gas 1 x 100% Superior (Leased) WBF74xHD EM
Hydrate Formation
• Presence of water in gas transportation system may result in Pressure-Temperature Curves For
hydrate formation and/or corrosion Predicting Hydrate Formation
• Hydrate Formation
– presence of free water
– low temperature
– high pressure
– C1-C4 parrafins
• Corrosion
– partial pressure H2S/CO2
– temperature
– water pH
• Formation boundary estimated by;
– charts (on right)
– Katz K Values
– equations of state
• modules within most commercial simulators
Note that this figure should only be used for first
approximations of hydrate formation conditions
Hydrate Curves
120
100
80
Pressure (bara)
60
40
20
0
-50 -40 -30 -20 -10 0 10 20 30
Temperature (deg C)
0% Methanol 10% Methanol 20% Methanol
30% Methanol 40% Methanol
Hydrate Inhibition
• Formation boundary suppression • Hammerschmidt gives good results at low
– methanol inhibitor concentrations (but errs on the
– glycol conservative side):
– threshold hydrate inhibitors – MeOH < 25 wt%
– MEG < 15 wt%
• Empirical Hammerschmidt equation for
prediction of the necessary inhibitor • The total inhibitor injection rate is found
concentration: d  Mi from:
X  100 
Ki  d  M i
 XR 
• X Weight percent of inhibitor in the mI  mW   
liquid water phase (wt%)  XL  XR 
d Depression of hydrate point (oC)
mI mass of inhibitor solution (kg)
Mi Molweight of inhibitor
mW mass of liquid water (kg)
Ki Constant: XR rich inhibitor concentration (out) (wt%)
1297 for methanol XL lean inhibitor concentration (in) (wt%)
2220 for glycols
Equilibrium Charts
Vapour-Liquid Equilibrium of Methanol over Water Water Content of Sweet Lean Natural Gas
• Losses to vapour phase: y/x (= K-value)
Inhibition Worked Example
• 10 MMscfd (2.83*105 stm3/d) of natural gas ( = 0.65) • Calculate the required mass of methanol in water:
having a hydrate formation temperature of 21.1oC cools to
4.4oC in a buried pipeline (pressure is 6.2 MPa). How  29.2 
mMeOH  181   75 kg / day
much methanol ( = 800 kg/m3, MW = 32) must be added 100  29.2 
if the gas enters the line saturated at 32.2oC and what is
the rate of injection ? • Calculate the methanol loss to the vapour phase using the
vapour-liquid equilibrium chart (4.4oC, 6.2 MPa):
• Calculate hydrate point depression: kg MeOH / 106 stm3

Vaporisation losses  17 
d = 21.1 - 4.4 = 16.7oC wt % MeOH in water phase
17 kg MeOH 0.283 106 stm3

• Use chart for water content of lean natural gas and mMeOH    29.2 wt % MeOH
106 stm3 day
calculate the amount of liquid water:
Water content @ 32.2oC = 800 kg/106 stm3
Water content @ 4.4oC = 160 kg/106 stm3 = 140 kg/day
640 kg/106 stm3
Total injection rate = 75 + 140 = 215 kg/day
640kg 0.283 106 stm3
Total liquid H 2O  6   181 kg / day
10 stm3 day
or
• Use Hammerschmidt equation:
X MeOH  100 
16.7  32  29.2 wt % 215 / 0.8 = 269 liter/day
1297  16.7  32
Hydrate Inhibition
Comparison of Inhibitors for Hydrate Suppression

Inhibitor Min. Temp oC Remarks
Can be regenerated and recovered from

Minus 95
Methanol liquid hydrocarbons. Significant vapour
Possibly to minus 106
losses above minus 25oC
Can be regenerated. Lower vapour losses
and less solubility in liquid hydrocarbons
Ethylene Glycol (MEG) Minus 40
than methanol. Significant vapour loss
above minus 1oC
Use only in warmer, low pressure systems
where glycol losses are high or where
Diethylene Glycol (DEG) Minus 10
glycol dehydration is used in conjunction
with glycol injection
Gas Dehydration Technologies
Dehydration Method Dewpoint BP Amoco Assets Typical Equipment Cost
Depression (not installed)
o
C $k/MMscfd
Glycol Injection 35 – 40 Cleeton 3.2
Glycol Absorption 35 – 55
Forties Bravo, Gyda,
Glycol Absorption 55 – 78
Magnus 5.8
(with stripping gas)
DRIZO 70 – 85 Bruce
Adsorption 50 – 90 Ula, Miller, Clyde,
8.4
Wytch Farm
Membranes 80 – 90 cheaper than DRIZO; ETAP
Endicott (small unit)
study; 30% cost & weight
Easington (test rig)
savings
IFPEX-1 90 East Gilby Gas Plant ETAP-study; cost savings of
(Petro-Canada), over 60% over conventional gas
Markham Gas Plant processing (glycol, turbo-
(Marathon) expander)
Vortex Tubes 25 – 60 Erskine-study; 10-20% overall
topsides cost saving over
conventional processes
Gas Dehydration
• Glycol/Methanol Injection Comparison of Dehydration Methods
Method Gas Specification Gas Specification Remarks
(ppm v/v) (lb/MMscf)
• Glycol Contacting TEG Contacting 20 1
Atmospheric regeneration
Min. contact temp 15-26oC
– simple 5 0.25
Vacuum regeneration and
gas stripping
– Cold Finger 2 0.1

Regeneration by azeotropic
distillation (OPC Drizo)
– OPC DRIZO Solid Desiccants 1

2
0.05
0.1
Molecular sieves
Alumina
Silica gel (high
10 0.5 capital/operating costs)
Membranes 20 1 "Permea"
• Solid Dessicants
– Molecular Sieves
– Silica Gels
• Membranes
– new technology
Membrane Separator for Natural Gas Dehydration
Glycol Injection
Glycol injection (usually MEG) can be used either to protect against hydrate
formation in transmission lines from offshore facilities or upstream of gas
refrigeration systems on onshore treatment plants. Glycol injection is
possibly the simplest method of dehydrating natural gas, as in its simplest
format it consists of an injection pump and injection point(s). If required,
the injected glycol can be recovered in a glycol still where the absorbed
water is driven off from the glycol. It is always economic to recover glycol
from a continuous process.
The glycol can be injected into the pipeline or into various sections of the
unit upstream of the chilling facilities. Spray nozzles are used to ensure
good dispersion into the gas the chilling facilities. Spray nozzles are used
to ensure good dispersion into the gas phase. As the gas is cooled and
water condenses, the glycol dissolves in the water phase. The gas and
liquid phases are separated downstream in one or more separators as the
gas is processed further. The glycol water mixture is drawn off and sent to
the glycol regeneration unit. The flow description and facilities are very
similar to the glycol regeneration unit described in the conventional glycol
absorption system.
Glycol Injection
TEG Dehydration/Regeneration
Water Vapour
PC (+ some HC, BTX) Drizo® (aromatic, naphtenic, paraffin mixture) Vent
Stripping Gas
low HC/BTX
Rich TEG Cooler (Air/Water)
Dry Gas
Still
Column
Flue Glycol/Glycol
dehydrati gas Exchangers
on.exe Reboiler
Water
LC
Drizo®
Wet Gas
Coldfinger®
LC
Surge Tank Filters

Glycol To Still
Contactor Column Flash
Drum
LC
Lean TEG
Trim Cooler Glycol Pump
Drizo Refit on Ekofisk
Prosernat France
Glycol Contacting
• Water is absorbed into glycol in a bubble tray • Contactor design:
or packed counter current contactor 0.5
   G 
vmax  K s   L 
 G 
• For tray type contactors a minimum spacing of
24” is recommended to prevent the formation vmax Maximum allowable superficial gas velocity (m/s)
Ks Constant (m/s)
of stable foams between trays and to allow for
0.0488 for 24” tray spacing and 2” seal
a suitable liquid level in the downcomers over bubble cap slots
0.1 for structured packing
L Density of TEG (kg/m3)
• Structured packing types:
G Density of gas (kg/m3)
– Mellapak, Montzpak, Flexipak, Gempak
– Advantages of structured packing:
• smaller diameter tower (cheaper) • Contactor designs available form key suppliers
• better mass transfer
– Natco
• no leak problems on trays
• not very sensitive to motion – Robert Jenkins
– BS&B
• Number of actual trays usually between 4 - 8 – Kvaerner Paladon
– Latoka
• TEG circulation rate (rule of thumb): – KCC
20-40 liter TEG / kg H20 absorbed – Allen Tank
Absorption
Glycol rate
Water content
Glycol purity Multiple variables
Know gas rate and required outlet water content
Outlet water quality sets inlet (lean) glycol purity
Glycol circulation rate set by equilibrium calculations
Tower diameter normally established by entrainment
limits
Vessel Packing height from packing characteristics
Diameter
Reboiler duty from heat balance - latent and sensible.
Packing
height
..\..\Simulations\GLYCOL
MODEL.HSC
Gas rate
Glycol purity
Water content
Packing Characteristics
Trays
Conventional Trays Vortex Trays Vortex Tray (Sulzer®) Chimney Tray
Bubble Caps (Sulzer®)
Package Trays (Nutter®) Bubble Caps
Packings
Ring Packing Koch-Glitsch®
Random Packing
Sulzer Mellapak® Koch-Glitsch
Tower Internals Flexigrid Structured Packing

Koch-Glitsch® Koch-Glitsch® Koch-Glitsch® Snap-Grid Nutter®
Distributors / Collectors
Sulzer Distributor/Collector Sulzer Special Design Sulzer Type VE Sulzer Type VK

Type VE Very low liquid loads
Distributors
Collectors
Sulzer Type SLMT Sulzer Type SLR
Upthrust Damage
Water Dewpoint /
Lean TEG Concentration
• The achievable water dewpoint from the glycol
contactor depends on the inlet lean TEG Minimum Lean TEG Concentration
concentration (equilibrium)
• It is normal practice to take the desired dewpoint
5-10oC below the equilibrium dewpoint (approach)
as equilibrium will not be reached in a contactor.
• Problem:
What should be the concentration of a lean TEG
solution achieving an equilibrium dewpoint of
-15oC in a contactor operating at 30oC ?
• Solution:
To be on the safe side, an approach of 10oC is
subtracted  Equilibrium dewpoint is -25oC
From the chart on the right, read the lean TEG
concentration at the intersection of the dewpoint
line and the contactor temperature line:
 Lean TEG concentration: 99.4 wt%
Gas Dehydration
Comparison of Glycols for Dehydration

Glycol Advantages Disadvantages
DEG Cheap Larger carry-over loss
(Diethylene- Less dewpoint depression
glycol) Regeneration to high
concentrations is more difficult
TEG Used in almost 100% of glycol dehydration systems
(Triethylene-
glycol)
TREG Lower carry-over loss due to More expensive
(Tetraethylene- lower vapour pressure
glycol) Can be used on gases whose
temperature exceeds about 50oC
Glycol Dehydration / Regeneration
• Glycol Regeneration Methods:
– Reboiler/regenerator column using stripping gas (fuel gas)
– DRIZO®-process using an aromatic recycling stripping solvent

• very high stripping gas rates
• little or no venting of hydrocarbons
• glycol concentrations of > 99.99 wt% can be achieved
• condensation and recovery of the aromatic hydrocarbons from the still column overhead
– Coldfinger® using a cooling element in the surge tank to condense water, thus
reducing the water partial pressure in the vapour space and increasing the lean glycol
concentration
• glycol concentrations of > 99.4 wt% can be achieved without the use of a stripping gas
Glycol System Operating Issues
Hydrocarbon Content - If hydrocarbons are present, the unit may be subject to foaming and the formation of gummy or tarry
deposits in the reboiler, heat exchangers, and absorber.
Corrosion - A glycol pH of less than 6 indicates a potentially serious corrosion problem with the system.
Foaming - Can be induced by hydrocarbons, salts and degredation products.
Salt precipitation - Can cause problems with reboiler.
Glycol Carryover - Poor tower design
Chimney tray Design - Poor design can lead to re-entrainment.
A simple visual inspection of the glycol can provide clues for identifying many glycol problems. The following conditions can
indicate major problems:
The presence of a finely divided black precipitate is the result of iron corrosion.
A black viscous glycol solution may be the result of heavy hydrocarbon contamination or glycol
polymerization due to thermal breakdown or interaction with hydrocarbons.
A sweet, aromatic odour may be an indicator of thermal degradation of the glycol.
A two-phase solution indicates hydrocarbon contamination.
Adsorption - Molecular Sieves
• Adsorption of water onto solid molecular • An adsorbent material should have the
sieve dessicant following characteristics:
• Material categories (alumino-silicates): – large surface area
– bauxite – “activity” for components to be removed
– alumina – high mass transfer rate
– silica gel – easily and economically regenerated
– molecular sieves – good activity retention with time
• Batch process on timed cycle – small resistance to gas flow
– high mechanical strength
• One bed on stream other under regeneration
– cheap, non-corrosive, non-toxic, chemically
• Key vendors: inert, high bulk density
– UOP (Alumina, Molecular Sieves) – no appreciable change in volume during
– W R Grace (Silica Gel, Molecular Sieves) adsorption desorption
– Rhone-Poulenc (Alumina, Molecular Sieves)
– Solvay (Silica Gel)
– Kvaerner Process Systems (Equipment)
Molecular Sieve System
PC
Wet Gas Inlet
FC Sequence Condensate
Controller Separator
Cooler
Heater
LC
Cooling
Heat
TC Cool
Regeneration
Molecular Molecular
Drying
Sieve Sieve
Cooling adsorber adsorber
Drain
Heating
Cool
Heat
Dry Gas Outlet
Filter
Operating Characteristics
Dry Desiccant Dehydration
• Recommended Operating Range:
– T < 50oC
– T > Hydrate point
• Desiccant Service:
– 3 - 5 years in absence of poisoning. Limited by loss of capacity, dusting and
breakage
• Dehydration Obtained:
– Essentially bone dry gas. Dewpoint: -75 to -125oC (Silica Gel: -60oC)
• Length of Cycle:
– Varies with water loading and gas rate: 4 - 24 hours
• Regeneration:
– Temperature: 175 - 300oC. About 5 to 15% of the total gas stream is used for
regeneration. 8 hour cycle: 6 hours heating, 2 hours cooling
• Advantages: • Disadvantages:
– Low exit dewpoint – High initial investment
– Effective dewpoint depression over a wide range of – Desiccant sensitive to poisoning
operating conditions – Rated capacity declines with pressure
– Compact – Pressure drop is higher than liquid desiccant systems
– Relatively low initial investment for small amounts – Regeneration heat load can be high in relation to the
of gas (batch or semi-batch operation) amount of gas processed
– Rated capacity may be increased by by-passing some
wet gas
Molecular Sieve - Design Rules
• Preliminary sizing rules: Maximum Superficial Velocity
– Sieve bed quantity: 10 kg sieve/kg water adsorbed
– Bulk density (average): 722 kg/m3
– The bed height is calculated from the quantity of
sieve bed required (above)
– The bed diameter is calculated from the gas
maximum superficial velocity (chart on the right)
• Three beds are sometimes used as this allows one

bed to be on-line, one bed on stand-by and the
other being regenerated
• Cycle times will be in the region of 4 to 24 hours

depending on the water loading and gas rate.
Optimum cycle times will vary from 4 to 8 hours
IFPEX
Gas dehydration can be achieved by chilling a gas stream to low temperatures in order to remove water down to a level which
is equivalent to the specified water dewpoint. One complication of such a process is the need for a hydrate inhibitor to prevent
hydrates forming at low temperatures. Institut Francais du Petrole (IFP) has developed a scheme which uses methanol for such
a duty and overcomes the traditional regeneration problems associated with methanol.
The novel regeneration process consists of a packed column to enable a slipstream of the wet gas stream, to be contacted
with the water/methanol stream from the Low Temperature Separator. The gas effectively strips the methanol out of the water
stream producing a discharge water stream containing as low as 50 ppm of methanol (suitable for offshore
disposal). Methanol losses from the Low Temperature Separator to the vapour and liquid hydrocarbon streams are accounted
for by means of a methanol make-up which is added to the inlet gas stream prior to chilling. The main benefits of the process
are the simple, environmentally friendly regeneration (minimal losses) process, small footprint area over conventional
dehydration schemes, suitability for unmanned platforms and the ability to dewpoint the gas at the same time as it is being
dehydrated. The main drawbacks are the methanol losses to the hydrocarbon phases and the dual dehydration and dewpointing
function. This is a drawback, as well as an advantage, as if the water specification is severe whilst the hydrocarbon dewpoint is
not, IFPex-1 will essentially overtreat the gas and produce large amounts of unwanted condensate.
Dehydration Technologies
Comparison
Actual Outlet Gas Specification Calibration is 1lb/MMscf = 20ppmv
1.50 30
A A Example Applications
Glycol Absorption
(A) Forties Bravo
1.25 25 (B) Gyda
C A (C) Frigg (Elf)
(D) Magnus
(E) Bruce
1.00 20 A B B
20ppm Glycol Injection
(A) Cleeton
Silica Gel
0.75 15 (A) Dimlington Terminal
D (B) Q8 Terminal
Netherlands
Cold
Finger
0.50 10 Molecular Sieve
10ppm
Stripping
Gas
(A) Ula
(B) Miller
7ppm
(C) Wytch Farm
0.25 5 E Membrane
Drizo (A) Easington Test Rig
C
2ppm 2ppm 2ppm
1ppm
0 0
Ib/MMscf Pppm Glycol Glycol Methanol Molecular
IFPEXOL Injection Silica Gel Membranes
Absorption Injection Sieve
Shell Twister - Dehydration Technology
• Combination of Thermo, Fluid and Aero Dynamics

• All in one - compact device & no moving parts
– Inlet Nozzle & Vortex Tube = Turbo Expander
– Supersonic Wing = Gas/Liquid Separation
– Diffuser = Re-Compressor (Pressure Recovery stage)
Phase Envelope comparison with other dehydration technology
• Thermodynamic Process is essentially Isentropic.

• Higher Isentropic Efficiency than a Turbo-Expander.
• Enters the hydrate region at centre point of tube.
Example PFD of Twister Technology
Potential Space saving wrt Traditional technologies has

offshore applications for Normally unattended installations
Fiscal Gas Metering
• Fiscal Gas Metering:
– Gas is metered for accounting and to
meet the requirements of the
Department of Energy (DoE) for
reporting and taxation
– The basis of metering is mass flow
by on line density measurement
– The recognised principle of
measurement is use of orifice plates,
with corrections for pressure,
temperature, density, and relative
density variations
– Ultrasonic technology become more
accepted Gas Metering Skid
Ultrasonic Flow Metering
One transducer transmits a signal downstream the flow. A second
transducer transmits a signal upstream against the flow along the same
path. A sound wave going with the flow travels faster than one
propagated against the flow. The time the acoustic pulses take to travel
across, with and against the flow, is measured very accurately. The
difference in transit times is directly proportional to the medium's mean
flow velocity.
The volumetric flow rate is the product of the mean velocity multiplied
with the cross section of the pipe.
KROHNE Meter

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Upstream Process

Standard Conditions (Pressure & Temperature)

Volume to Mass conversions

1 MMscfd = 110 lbmol/hr

– reinject for reservoir support

– reinject into separate formation Dehydration

• Outcome is application specific

Leakage flow here opposes

End thrust generated Opposed by the

– Greater flexibility in capacity – Lower maintenance expense

Head (adiabatic or polytropic)

– Vibration – Compressor will shut down and blowdown at loss

– Minimum Flow Control. Suitable for fixed

Lube Oil System

Reciprocating compressors can be supplied as lubricated or oil-free designs. Oil-free

1- piston 4- connecting rod

There are a number of means of

10. gas to and from unloading device

In order to understand how a reciprocating compressor performs. A few key concepts

The compression cycle is shown in

a) The piston is at top dead centre with

A typical compression cycle is shown

Wiredrawing is defined as a restriction of area for a flowing fluid, causing a loss in

The compression process generates heat Leakage back through suction or

The pressure-volume diagram attached

In twin screw compressors the male

Basic compression characteristics are

V1 Volume when compressio n begins

Will the mean molar mass Is the pressure rise

Is the pressure rise

Use a Use a Use a Use a

• Isentropic Process: S = 0, reversible (Sp = 0) and

NGLs NGLs NGLs

Single Shaft – what speed?

Compressor 1st Stage 2nd Stage Export

Single Shaft – what speed?

Efficiency 0.767 0.655 0.564 Efficiency 0.768 0.7723 0.641

Total Power (KW) 20350

Total Power (KW) 20910

• Driver selection influenced by:

Depending on the size and type of

Is power per Is power per Is power per

Yes Is weight Yes Is weight Yes Is weight

Saturated vapour to next stage compression/

Asset Service Nos/Duty Manufacturer Model Seal Driver

Andrew LP 1 x 100% Sulzer RB 35-3+4 D? ABB – GT35

Bruce LP 1 x 100% Dresser Rand 26 08 B3/3 D? EM

ETAP LP 2 x 50% Demag Delaval 6B26 DT EM

Forties A/D NGL 2 x 75% ? Dresser Rand MTGB724 W Rustons TB4500

Foinaven LP (1st stage) 2 x 50% Dresser Rand 451B6 (TP28 seals) D? EM

Gyda LP 1 x 100% Delaval Stork 6BK22 W EM

Kinneil Terminal Trains 1 & 2 – Separator 2 x 25% Sulzer RZ 35-4+4 W Sulzer S1

Magnus LP Flash 3 x 50% Sulzer R28-5 W EM

Miller LP Flash Gas 1 x 100% Sulzer R45-5 W EM

Schiehallion HP1/HP2 2 x 50% Howden WCVT5510/13258 ? EM

SNS (Cleeton) Export 1 x 100% Dresser Rand DT ABB GT35

Thistle LP Gas Lift 1 x 100% Demag 8B26 DT EM

Ula LP 1 x 100% Delaval Stork 4B22 W EM

Wytch Farm Sales Gas Export 2 x 50% Sundstrand LMC331P W EM

• Losses to vapour phase: y/x (= K-value)

• Calculate hydrate point depression: kg MeOH / 106 stm3

17 kg MeOH 0.283 106 stm3

Comparison of Inhibitors for Hydrate Suppression

Can be regenerated and recovered from