BASIC CONCEPTS OF ECOSYSTEM

The Ecosystem Concept – A brief history

Early 1910-1920’s: Clements and Gleason

Biotic descriptions
of communities views plant communities
as a super organism

emphasized individualistic
1935 properties – a fortuitous
collection
Include abiotic factors occurring together in time and
space
 Charles Elton characterized feeding relationships among
animals on Bear Island, North Atlantic
1927
Emphasized
energy flow

coined the terms “food chain” and “food cycle” to be replaced by food
web
Elton’s Pyramids
As one goes up the food chain, one ascends a progression of
sizes as most predators consume smaller prey; larger animals
require more space to find food and hence their numbers go down.

#’s Biomass

1 1kg
10 10
100 100
1000 1000
 Of the total solar radiation, 0 , plants
use some fraction, 1 , herbivores
assimilate less energy, 2 , owing to
plants maintaining themselves before
being eaten and E lost during assimilatio
2 = Biological Efficiency
1 of the trophic link (<<1)

1942 Ray Lindeman

visualized a Pyramid of Energy Transformation
– less energy becomes available to higher levels
due to work being done and inefficient transfer.
1953 Eugene Odum – model Energy flow, later adapted for nutrients
as well
(1) Energy flows in one direction, absorbed light is lost as heat or
transferred
into chemical energy through photosynthesis (Annual Gross Primary
Production) by autotrophic organisms.
(2) Autotrophs spend some energy to respire, other goes into growth,
which becomes available to heterotrophs at the next higher level
(Annual Net Primary Production)
Later, nutrient flows were added:
Unlike energy, nutrients are typically
retained and regenerated in biological
systems. There are some inputs and
outputs (but rather small) and nutrients
pool in some parts of the ecosystem,
but mainly are transferred between
various trophic levels.

• Cycling of nutrients has assumed a near equal status with energy flow.
One reason is that the amounts of the elements and their movement
between ecosystem components provides an index to energy flow, which
may be otherwise difficult to measure.
• Carbon in particular bears a close relationship w/energy because of its
intimate association w/photosynthesis.
• Also, certain nutrients regulate Primary Production e.g., water in
deserts, N & P in oligotrohic lakes
What is An Ecosystem?

• An ecosystem is a grouping of organisms that interact with

each other and their environment in such a way as to preserve
the grouping.
• It is defined as a structural and functional unit of biosphere
consisting of community of living organisms and its non-living
physical environment both interacting and exchanging material
between them.
• There is a great variety of ecosystems in existence, all of them
are characterized by general structural and functional attributes.
• An ecosystem can be as large as the Sahara Desert, or as small
as a puddle!!!
• Ecosystems are more than just the organisms they contain
geography, weather, climate and geologic factors also
influence the interactions within an ecosystem.
Fundamental Characteristics
• Structure:
– Living (biotic)
– Nonliving (abiotic)
• Process:
– Energy flow
– Cycling of matter (chemicals)
• Change:
– Dynamic (not static)
– Succession, etc.
Abiotic Components:

• Solar energy provides practically all the energy for

ecosystems.
• Abiotic components mainly includes:
i. Inorganic substances, e.g., sulfur, boron, tend to cycle
through ecosystems.
ii. Organic compounds, such as proteins, carbohydrates, lipids,
and other complex molecules, form a link between biotic and
abiotic components of the system.
Biotic Components
• Classified according to their mode of energy acquisition.
• In this type of classification, there are:
i. Autotrophs (Producers): Organisms that produce their own
food from an energy source, such as the sun, and inorganic
compounds.
ii. Heterotrophs (Consumers &Decomposers): Organisms that
consume other organisms as a food source.
Types of Ecosystems

• Set of ecosystem is called biome. In biosphere ther are :

1. Natural biomes (terrestrial & aquatic )
2. Artificial biomes.
• Types on based of energy resources:
1. Unsubsidized natural solar powered ecosystem
2. natural subsidized solar powered ecosystem
3. Man subsidized solar powered ecosystem
4. Fuel powered ecosystem
Major principles of ecosystem
• Nutrient cycling:
– Movement of chemical elements from the environment into
living organisms and from them back into the environment
through organisms live, grow, die and decompose.
• Energy flow:
– Energy is required to transform inorganic nutrients into
organic tissues of an organism.
– Energy is the driving force to the work of ecosystem.
• Structure
– It refers to the particular pattern of inter-relationships that
exists between organisms in an ecosystem.
 ECOSYSTEM
Structure and Function
Ecosystem-Structure
• The structure of an ecosystem is characterized by the physical
organisation of biotic and abiotic components.
• The major structural features of ecosystem are:

i. Species Composition
ii. Stratification
iii. Trophic Organization
iv. Nutrients
Species Composition

• Each ecosystem has its own type of species composition.

• Forest ecosystem has more diverse species composition while
few occurs in desert ecosystem.
Stratification

• The organisms in each ecosystem form one or more layers or

strata each comprising the population of particular kind of
species.
Trophic Organisation

• Trophic structure of ecosystem is based on the existence of

several trophic levels in the ecosystem.
• The producers,herbivores,decomposers constitute the
first,second and third trophic level respectively.
Nutrients

• The nutrients necessary for the growth of living organisms are

accumulated in the biomass and the abiotic components like
soil
Ecosystem-Function

• Ecosystem have some functional attributes which keep the

component parts running together.
• The major functional attributes of the ecosystem are:
i. Productivity and Decomposition
ii. Energy Flow
iii. Nutrient Cycling
iv. Development and stabilization
PRODUCERS

• These are chlorophyll bearing autotrophic organisms which

prepare organic compounds from inorganic raw materials with
the help of sunlight through the process of photosynthesis
CONSUMERS

• Consumers or phagotrophs are heterotrophic organisms which

generally ingest or swallow their food by themselves.
DECOMPOSERS

• These are saprophytic micro organisms such as bacteria and

fungi which obtain their food from dead bodies of producers
and consumers and their organic waste.
FOOD CHAIN,FOOD WEB
AND ECOLOGICAL
PYRAMIDS
Food Chain

• The particular pathway of nutrient and energy movement

depends on which organism feeds on anther.

Decomposers
Food Chains

• The transfer of food energy from one trophic level to the next
trophic level.
• Mainly there are two types of food chain:
i. Grazing Food Chain
ii. Detritus Food Chain
Difference?
GRAZING FOOD CHAIN
• It extends from producers
through herbivores to
carnivores.
• Eg: Terrestrial food chain,
Aquatic food chain.
DETRITUS FOOD CHAIN
• It starts with dead organic
matter and passes through
detritus feeding organisms
in soil to organisms feeding
on detritus feeders and their
predators.
• Eg: Decomposition of
accumulated litter in forests.
Trophic Levels

• A trophic level means a feeding level.

– First level – all producers
– Second level – all herbivores
– Third level – first level carnivores
– Fourth level – second level carnivores
– So on……..
Trophic levels
• Energy and Nutrients passed through the ecosystem by food
chains and webs from lower trophic level to the higher trophic
level.
• However, only 5% to 20% energy and nutrients are transferred
into higher trophic level successfully.
• For this reason, first trophic level has the largest number of
organisms, and second trophic level is less than first one; the
third level is less than second level, and so on.
Trophic levels
Biomass
• Biomass means the total combined weight of any specified
group of organisms.
• The biomass of the first trophic level is the total weight of all
the producers in a given area.
• Biomass decreases at higher trophic levels.
Biomass
Biomass and productivity
Trophic Level
(Food Pyramid)
Food Web

• A network of food chains which are interconnected at various

trophic levels so as to form a number of feeding connections
amongst different organisms of a biotic community is called
food web.
Food Webs
Ecological Pyramids

• A graphical representation of ecological parameters known as

ecological pyramids.
• Ecological parameters include:
i. Number of individuals
ii. Amount of biomass
iii. Amount of Energy
Types of Ecological Pyramids

• Pyramid of Number
• Pyramid of Energy
• Pyramid of Biomass
Energy Flow in the Ecosystem
Tertiary
consumers 10 J

Secondary
consumers 100 J

Primary 1,000 J
consumers

Primary
producers 10,000 J

1,000,000 J of sunlight
 Sun Key
Chemical cycling
Heat Energy flow

Primary producers

Primary Detritus
consumers

Secondary and Microorganisms

and other
tertiary consumers
detritivores
Gross and Net Production
• Total primary production is known as the ecosystem’s gross
primary production (GPP)
• GPP is measured as the conversion of chemical energy from
photosynthesis per unit time
• Net primary production (NPP) is GPP minus energy used by
primary producers for respiration
• NPP is expressed as
 Energy per unit area per unit time (J/m2yr), or
 Biomass added per unit area per unit time
(g/m2yr)
• NPP is the amount of new biomass added in a given time period
• Only NPP is available to consumers
• Standing crop is the total biomass of photosynthetic autotrophs
at a given time
• Ecosystems vary greatly in NPP and contribution to the total
NPP on Earth
• Tropical rain forests, estuaries, and coral reefs are among the
most productive ecosystems per unit area
• Marine ecosystems are relatively unproductive per unit area, but
contribute much to global net primary production because of
their volume
• Net ecosystem production (NEP) is a measure of the total
biomass accumulation during a given period
• NEP is gross primary production minus the total respiration of all
organisms (producers and consumers) in an ecosystem
• NEP is estimated by comparing the net flux of CO2 and O2 in an
ecosystem, two molecules connected by photosynthesis
• The release of O2 by a system is an indication that it is also
storing CO2
Biological and geochemical processes
cycle nutrients and water in ecosystems
• Life depends on recycling chemical elements
• Nutrient circuits in ecosystems involve biotic and abiotic
components and are often called biogeochemical cycles.
• Gaseous carbon, oxygen, sulfur, and nitrogen occur in the
atmosphere and cycle globally
• Less mobile elements include phosphorus, potassium, and
calcium
• These elements cycle locally in terrestrial systems, but more
broadly when dissolved in aquatic systems.
• A model of nutrient cycling includes main reservoirs of
elements and processes that transfer elements between
reservoirs
• All elements cycle between organic and inorganic reservoirs
Reservoir A Reservoir B
Organic materials Organic
available as materials
nutrients unavailable
as nutrients
Fossilization Peat
Living
organisms,
Coal
detritus

Oil
Respiration,
decomposition,
excretion
Burning of
fossil fuels

Assimilation,
photosynthesis
Reservoir D Reservoir C
Inorganic materials Inorganic materials
unavailable available as
as nutrients nutrients
Weathering, Atmosphere
erosion
Minerals Water
in rocks
Formation of Soil
sedimentary
rock
The Water Cycle
• Water is essential to all organisms
• Liquid water is the primary physical phase in which water is
used
• The oceans contain 97% of the biosphere’s water; 2% is in
glaciers and polar ice caps, and 1% is in lakes, rivers, and
groundwater
• Water moves by the processes of evaporation, transpiration,
condensation, precipitation, and movement through surface
and groundwater
Hydrologic (Water) Cycle
The Carbon Cycle
• Carbon-based organic molecules are essential to all organisms
• Photosynthetic organisms convert CO2 to organic molecules
that are used by heterotrophs
• Carbon reservoirs include fossil fuels, soils and sediments,
solutes in oceans, plant and animal biomass, the atmosphere,
and sedimentary rocks.
• CO2 is taken up and released through photosynthesis and
respiration; additionally, volcanoes and the burning of fossil
fuels contribute CO2 to the atmosphere
The Carbon Cycle (Terrestrial)
The Carbon Cycle (Aquatic)
The Nitrogen Cycle
• Nitrogen is a component of amino acids, proteins, and nucleic
acids
• The main reservoir of nitrogen is the atmosphere (N2), though
this nitrogen must be converted to NH4+ or NO3– for uptake
by plants, via nitrogen fixation by bacteria
• Organic nitrogen is decomposed to NH4+ by ammonification,
and NH4+ is decomposed to NO3– by nitrification
• Denitrification converts NO3– back to N2
The Nitrogen Cycle
The Phosphorus Cycle
• Phosphorus is a major constituent of nucleic acids,
phospholipids, and ATP
• Phosphate (PO43–) is the most important inorganic form of
phosphorus
• The largest reservoirs are sedimentary rocks of marine origin,
the oceans, and organisms
• Phosphate binds with soil particles, and movement is often
localized
The Phosphorus Cycle
S
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r

C
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e
Decomposition and Nutrient Cycling Rates
• Decomposers (detritivores) play a key role in the general pattern
of chemical cycling
• Rates at which nutrients cycle in different ecosystems vary
greatly, mostly as a result of differing rates of decomposition
• The rate of decomposition is controlled by temperature, moisture,
and nutrient availability
Case Study: Nutrient Cycling in the Hubbard
Brook Experimental Forest

• The Hubbard Brook Experimental Forest has been used to study

nutrient cycling in a forest ecosystem since 1963
• The research team constructed a dam on the site to monitor loss
of water and minerals
• They found that 60% of the precipitation exits through streams
and 40% is lost by evapotranspiration
(a) Concrete dam and weir

(b) Clear-cut watershed

Nitrate concentration in runoff

80
60 Deforested
40
20
(mg/L)

Completion of
4 tree cutting
3 Control
2
1
0
1965 1966 1967 1968
(c) Nitrate in runoff from watersheds
• In one experiment, the trees in one valley were cut down, and
the valley was sprayed with herbicides
• Net losses of water were 3040% greater in the deforested site
than the undisturbed (control) site
• Nutrient loss was also much greater in the deforested site
compared with the undisturbed site
– For example, nitrate levels increased 60 times in the
outflow of the deforested site
• These results showed how human activity can affect
ecosystems
ECOLOGICAL SUCCESSION
What do you understand by Ecological
Succession?
• The gradual replacement of one plant community by another
through natural processes over time
• Succession can be of two types:
i. Primary Succession
ii. Secondary Succession
Primary Succession
Secondary Succession
Mechanism Of Succession

• Nudation
• Migration(Dispersal)
• Ecesis(Establishment)
• Aggregation
• Invasion
• Competition and Coaction
• Reaction
• Stabilisation(Climax)
Succession on Bare Rock
Succession in Pond or Lake
MAJOR ECOSYSTEM
Major terrestrial biomes include

• Tropical forest
• Desert
• Temperate Grassland
• Savanna
• Temperate broadleaf forest
• Coniferous forest (Taiga)
• Tundra
Forest Ecosystem
• Natural plant communities.
• Total land area of forest in India 19%.
• Forest Biomes in India :
– Tropical Rain Forest
– Tropical Deciduous Forest
– Temperate Broad Leaf
– Temperate needle leaf or Coniferous forest.
Abiotic Components
Biotic Components
– Producers
– Consumers
– Decomposers
Deciduous Forest
• Large, flat leaves that drop
off in the Fall, new leaves
grow in Spring.
• Leaves change color with
the seasons.
• grow in places that have
warm, wet summers and
cold winters.
• temperate deciduous forest
is its changing seasons.

Winter
 Tropical Rain Forest

Canopy
• These trees grow in places that
are hot and wet all year.
• Trees are very tall and the
Understory leaves are always green.
• The forest has three layers.
• Animals such as jaguars and
monkeys live there.

Forest floor
Coastal Forest

• Grows in places where there

is lots of rain.
• Temperature is not too hot
or too cold, just cool.
• Has three layers just like the
rain forest: canopy,
understory, forest floor.
Coniferous Forest

• Grows in places with very

cold winters and cool
summers.
• The leaves look like
needles so they don’t need
very much water.
Seed cone
• Seeds grow in cones.
• Get less rain than all the
other forests.
Savannah
Savanna

• Savannas are found in tropical parts of Africa, South America,

and Australia.
• They are characterized by extensive grasslands spotted with
occasional patches of trees.
• They receive 50-150 cm annual precipitation, unevenly
distributed throughout year.
• Rainfall patterns produce a seasonally structured ecosystem.
• Fire is a common feature.
• Many trees are involved in nitrogen fixation.
• Human impact:
– Savannas have been heavily impacted by agriculture.
– Because of long periods of drought, raising crops is
difficult without irrigation.
– Some areas support nomadic herding.
– In Africa, there are extensive areas set aside as parks and
natural areas and ecotourism is an important source of
income.
Desert Ecosystem

• Low rainfall less than 25 cm

• Occupies 17% land
• Biota is poorly represented
• Abiotic Components
• Biotic Components
– Producers
– Consumers
– Decomposers
• Desert plants, such as
cactus, have thick stems that
store water.
• The roots of a cactus lie just
below the soil and spread far
from the plant.
Mediterranean Shrublands (Chaparral)
• Mediterranean shrublands are located near oceans and are
dominated by shrubby plants.
• Their climate features wet, cool winters and hot, dry summers.
• They receive 40-100 cm annual precipitation.
• This biome is typical of the Mediterranean coast, coastal
southern California, as well as parts of Africa, Chile, and
Australia.
• Vegetation is dominated by woody shrubs adapted to hot, dry
summers.
• Fire is a common feature.
Tropical Dry Forest

• The tropical dry forest is another biome heavily influenced by

seasonal rainfall. These biomes are found in Central and South
America, Australia, Africa, and Asia.
• Annual precipitation ranges 50-200cm.
• Many exhibit a monsoon climate with highly seasonal rainfall.
• Plants have developed special adaptations to survive drought.
Tundra

• North of the taiga is the tundra, an extremely cold region that

lacks trees and has a permanently frozen subsurface soil.
• The permanently frozen soil layer is called permafrost.
• The tundra receives less than 25 cm annual precipitation.
• This biome has a short, wet summer.
• Waterlogged soils and shallow ponds and pools are present in
spring and summer.
• Plants are usually less than 20 cm tall.
• Tundralike communities known as alpine tundra are found on
mountaintops throughout the world.
Grassland Ecosystems

• Grasslands are dry, often flat areas of land that are hot in the
summer and cold in the winter.
• They get more rain and snow than deserts but less that most
other ecosystems.
• The main plant in a grassland ecosystem is grass.
• There are not many bushes in the grassland.
• Trees are found only by rivers and streams.
Grassland Ecosystem

• Occurs in cool to cold climate in winters and hot in summers.

• Abiotic Components
• Biotic Components
– Producers
– Consumers
– Decomposers
Major aquatic biomes
• Lakes
• Rivers
• Estuaries
• Intertidal zone
• Marine pelagic zone
• Coral reefs
• Marine benthic zone (benthic zone is sea/lakefloor)
How is a lake stratified and what lives in
each level?
• Aquatic biomes often stratified by light and temperature.
• Light intensity decreases with depth. Upper (photic) zone
supports photosynthesis.
• In ocean photic zone narrow but contains most organisms.
• Epilimnion- upper layer of
warm water; high light &
O2; ex: water striders,
phyto- & zooplankton, fish
• Thermocline
(mesolimnion); middle
layer; medium light & O2;
ex: phyto- & zooplankton,
fish
• Hypolimnion- lower layer
of cold water; lower light &
O2; ex: fish
• Benthos- bottom level; no
light & little O2; ex:
anaerobic bacteria, leeches;
insect larvae
• Littoral- near the shoreline;
cattails, rushes, amphibians,
etc.
Types of Aquatic Ecosystems
• Freshwater Ecosystems
– Standing Water- lakes &
ponds
– Moving Water- rivers &
streams
• Transitional Communities
– Estuaries
– Wetlands- bogs/fens,
swamps, marshes
• Marine Ecosystems
– Shorelines
– Barrier Islands
– Coral Reefs
– Open Ocean
Freshwater Ecosystems
• Usually 0.005% salt
– Some exceptions:
• Great Salt Lakes-
5-27% salt
• Dead Sea- 30% salt
• Moving water- high
elevations; cold; high O2;
trout; streamlined plants
• Standing water- lower
elevations; warmer; less O2;
bass, amphibians; cattails,
rushes
Transitional Communities
• ESTUARIES
• Where freshwater dumps
into ocean
• Brackish (less salty than
seawater)
• Has rich sediments that
often form deltas
• Productive & biodiverse
• Organisms adapted to
varying levels of salinity as
tide ebbs & flows
• “Nursery” for larval forms
of many aquatic species of
commercial fish & shellfish
• WETLANDS
• Land saturated at least part
of the year
• Swamps- have trees like
bald cypress; high
productivity Swamp

• Marshes- no trees; tall

grasses; high productivity
• Bogs/Fens- may or may not
have trees; waterlogged soil Marsh
with lots of peat; low
productivity
– Fens- fed by
groundwater & surface
runoff
– Bogs- fed by Bog
precipitation Fen
Marine Ecosystems
• SHORELINES
• Rocky coasts- great density
& diversity attached to solid
rock surface
• Sandy beaches- burrowing
animals
• Threats- due to hotels,
restaurants, homes on beach,
more plant life destroyed,
destabilizing soil,
susceptible to wind & water
erosion
• Insurance high; danger of
hurricanes, erosion
• Build sea walls to protect
people but changes &
endangers shoreline habitat
CORAL REEFS
• Clear, warm shallow seas
• Made up of accumulated calcareous (made of calcium)
skeletons of coral animals
• Formation depends on light penetration.
• Have a symbiotic relationship with algae
• Very diverse, abundant (rainforests of sea)
• Threats- destructive fishing (cyanide & dynamite to stun
fish), pet trade; about 3/4ths have been destroyed
• limestone ridges found in tropical climates and composed of
coral fragments that are deposited around organic remains
• Among the most diverse ecosystems on Earth
– thousands of species of plants and animals live in the cracks and
crevices of coral reefs
• Corals are predators that use stinging tentacles to capture
small animals, such as zooplankton, that float or swim close
to the reef
Freshwater Ecosystems
• Rivers, ponds, lakes and
streams have fresh water.
• Lakes and rivers are closely
tied. Some lakes are the
source for some rivers.
Important rivers, most often,
originate from lakes. Some
rivers end in lakes.
• Since both rivers and lakes
are freshwater and flow in
and out of each other, they
share similar characteristics
and many species reside in
both habitats.
Ocean Ecosystem
Oceans ecosystem
• Sunlight used by plants for photosynthesis penetrates only
about 100 m into the ocean
• Much of the ocean’s life is concentrated in the shallow coastal
waters where sunlight penetrates to the bottom and rivers wash
nutrients from the land
• Seaweed and algae grow anchored to rocks, and phytoplankton
drift on the surface. Invertebrates and fish then feed on these
plants.
• In the open ocean, phytoplankton grow only in areas where
there is enough light & nutrients
– one of the least productive of all ecosystems
• The sea’s smallest herbivores are zooplankton
– include jellyfish and tiny shrimp
– live near the surface with the phytoplankton they eat
• Fish and marine mammals (whales) feed on the plankton
• Deep ocean no sunlight
– most food at the ocean floor consists of dead organisms that
fall from the surface
• Decomposers, filter feeders & the organisms that eat them live
in the deep areas of the ocean
• The types of organisms that may be found in the layers of the
ocean at various depths is dependent on available sunlight
Oceans ecosystem
Marine Ecosystem
Marine Ecosystems

• Marine ecosystems are located mainly in

coastal areas and in the open ocean.
• Organisms that live in coastal areas adapt to
changes in water level and salinity.
• Organisms that live in the open ocean adapt
to changes in temperature and the amount
of sunlight and nutrients available.
Estuarine Ecosystem
 Estuaries
• Occur where a river flows into the
ocean or an inland sea
• Coastal estuaries are brackish
ecosystems; organisms must tolerate
wide salinity and temperature ranges.
• Coastal estuaries are home to salt
marshes and mangrove forests.
• When fresh water meets salt water
– currents form
– nutrient-rich mud to falls to the bottom making
in available to producers.

• Estuaries are very productive

– they constantly receive nutrients from the river
and ocean
– surrounding land protects the estuaries from the
harsh force of ocean waves
 Environmental Issue - Eutrophication
• Eutrophication an increase
in the amount of nutrients
(nitrates) in an aquatic
ecosystem

• As the plants and algae

grow, the number of bacteria
feeding on the decaying
organisms also grows
• The bacteria use the oxygen
dissolved in the lake’s
waters
• Eventually the reduced
dissolved oxygen kills
oxygen loving organisms