Theories of motivation

 There are various theories related to

motivation. They may be classified as
either (1) or (2) process theories.
 Content theories are those that focus
on analyzing the wants and needs of an
individual.
 Four(4) Better known content theories are
the following.
1. Hierarchy of needs theory of Abraham
Maslow
2. ERG Theory of clayton Alderfer
3. Acquired needs theory of David L. McClelland
4. Two-factor Theory of Frederick Herzberg
• Process theories explain how people act in
response to the wants and needs that they
have. Classified under process theories are the
following.
1. Expectancy Theory of Victor Vroom
2. Equity Theory of j. Stacey Adams
3. Goal setting theory of Edwin A. Locke
 The Hierarchy Needs Theory
• Abraham Maslow forwarded the Idea that
Human Being Possess a hierarchy of five needs
(Physiological, safety, social, esteem, and self
actualization) such that as each need is
substantially satisfied, the next becomes
dominant.
1. Physiological Motivation: which include hunger,
thirst, shelter, sex and other bodily needs.
2. Safety needs: which include security and protection
from physical and emotional harm.
3. Social needs: which include affection, belongingness,
acceptance and friendship.
4. Esteem needs: which include internal esteem factors
such as self-respect, autonomy and achievement, and
external esteem factors such as status, recognition
and attention.
5. Self Actualization: refers to the drive to become what
one is capable of becoming. Which includes growth,
achieving one’s potential and self-fulfillment.
In 1954, Maslow created the Hierarchy of
human needs and expressed his theories in his
book Motivation and Personality.
ILLUSTRATION OF MASLOW’S HIERARCHY OF NEEDS
Self-actualization

Esteem

Social

Safety

Physiological
 Motivational Theories X & Y

SA Theory Y - a set of
assumptions of how to
Esteem manage individuals
motivated by higher
Love (Social) order needs
Theory X - a set of
Safety & Security assumptions of how to
manage individuals
Physiological motivated by lower
order needs
 The ERG Theory
• Is need hierarchy theory of motivation that
was developed by Clayton Alderfer. He
believed that motivating people, we are
confronted by three sets of needs; (E)
existence, (R) relatedness, and (G) Growth.
 These sets of needs may be briefly describe
as follows:
1. Existence- this refers to needs satisfied by such
factors as food, air, water, pay, and working
condition.
2. Relatedness- this refers to the needs satisfied
by meaningful social and interpersonal
relationships.
3. Growth- this refers to the needs satisfied by an
individual making creative or productive
contribution.
 ERG Theory
(Aldefer)

Relatedness Needs

Existence Needs Growth Needs

Satisfaction/Progression

Frustration/Regression

Satisfaction/Strengthening
 Need Theories: A Comparison
Growth needs

5. Self-actualization needs
• Growth needs
4. Esteem needs
Deficiency Needs

3. Social needs • Relatedness needs

2. Safety needs
• Existence needs

1. Physiological needs

Maslow’s need hierarchy theory Alderfer’s ERG theory

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 Acquired need theories
 Was developed as result of a research made
by David McClelland and his associates. They
found out that managers are motivated by
three fundamental needs which may be briefly
describe.
 Three (3) fundamental needs
1. Need for achievement- this refers to the desire to
do something better or more efficiently, to solve
problems, or to master complex task;
2. Need for affiliation- which refers to the desire to
establish and maintain friendly and warm relations
with others;
3. Need for power- which refers to the desire to
control others, to influence their behavior, or to be
responsible for others.
McClelland believed that foregoing needs are acquired
over time as a result of life experiences.
His research findings consist of the following;

1. People who have high achievement needs

have the drive to advance and to overcome
challenging situations such as those faced by
entrepreneurs in introducing innovative new
business;
2. An affiliation motivated person prefers to work
with friends;
3. The need of power drives successful manager.
 3 Motivational Need Theories
Maslow Alderfer McClelland
Self-actualization Growth Need for
Achievement
Higher Esteem
self
Order interpersonal
Need for
Power
Needs
Belongingness
(social & love) Relatedness Need for
Affiliation

Safety & Security

Lower interpersonal
Order physical

Needs Existence
Physiological
 The Two-factor Theory
• Frederick Hezberg developed his two-factory
theory that identifies job context as source of
job dissatisfaction and job content as the
source of job satisfaction.
 Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory
Hygiene Factor - work condition related to
dissatisfaction caused by discomfort or pain
– maintenance factor
– contributes to employee’s feeling not dissatisfied
– contributes to absence of complaints
Motivation Factor - work condition related to the
satisfaction of the need for psychological growth
– job enrichment
– leads to superior performance & effort
 Motivation–Hygiene
Theory of Motivation
Motivation factors
• Company policy & increase job satisfaction
administration
• Supervision
• Interpersonal relations
• Working conditions • Achievement
• Salary • Achievement recognition
• Status • Work itself
• Security • Responsibility
• Advancement
• Growth
• Salary

Hygiene factors avoid

job dissatisfaction
SOURCE: Adapted from Frederick Herzberg, The Managerial Choice: To be Efficient or to Be Human. (Salt Lake City: Olympus, 1982). Reprinted by permission.
 Motivation-Hygiene Combinations

High M Low M
high motivation low motivation
High H
few complaints few complaints
Low H high motivation low motivation
many complaints many complaints
(Motivation = M, Hygiene = H)
 Individual—Organizational Exchange
Relationship
Organization Individual
 Organizational goals  Physiological needs
Contributions Demands

 Departmental objectives  Security needs

 Job tasks  Physical needs
 Developmental
 Company status potential
 Benefits  Employee knowledge
 Income  Employee skills and
abilities
SOURCE: Reproduced with permission from McGraw-Hill, Inc.
Process Theories
 Expectancy Theory
 Was developed by Victor Vroom. This theory
sees people as choosing a course of action
according to what they anticipate will give
them the greatest rewards.
 Expectancy Theory of
Motivation: Key Constructs

Valence - value or importance placed on a

particular reward

Expectancy - belief that effort leads to

performance

Instrumentality - belief that performance is

related to rewards
 Expectancy Theory: An Overview
Three factors are useful deriving motivation. The formula is
as follows;
Valence x Expectancy x Instrumentality= Motivation
Effort Skills and
Expectancy abilities

Performance X
Instru- Job
mentality Motivation Performance
Rewards X
Valence of
Rewards Role perceptions
and opportunities

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 Expectancy Model of Motivation

Effort
Effort Performance Reward

Perceived effort– Perceived Perceived

performance performance– value of reward
probability reward probability

“If I work hard, “What rewards “What rewards

will I get the job will I get when do I value?”
done?” the job is well
done?”
• Expectancy theories predict that motivation
will be high if all the Three factors are rated
high. Conversely, the lower the rate for any or
all of the three factors, the lower the
motivation becomes.
Example: Choose between Job A vs. Job B

• 1. What are the possible outcomes I would get from

getting a job, and how much do I value each of these
outcome (Valence)
– Good salary 7
– Good Pension 6
– Interesting work 8
– Travel opportunities 4
Valences are measured on a scale from 1 (not at all
satisfiying) to 10 (extremely satisfying)
 Expectancy example, cont

• Instrumentality: What is the relationship

(subjective correlation) between choosing
job A or job B and obtaining this outcome?
Instrumentality Instrumentality
for Job A for Job B
High salary .75 .50
Good Pension .25 .75
Interesting work .50 .75
Travel .75 .25
 Expectancy example, con’t
• Expectancy: What is the probability that if I
work hard, I will be successful:
– In Job A: .40
– In Job B: .70
 Equity theory
 Proposes that employees perceive what they
get from the job situation (outcomes) in
relation to what they put in (inputs) and then
compare their inputs-outcomes ratio with the
inputs-outcomes ratios of relevant others.
 Inequity
• Inequity leads to experience of tension, and
tension motivates a person to act in a manner
to resolve the inequity.
• The person, however, will be confronted with
any of the Two types of inequity.
1. Over rewarded
2. Under rewarded
• Employees who feel over Rewarded will think
there is an imbalance in their relationship with
their employer. They will seek to restore the
balance through any of the following:
1. They might work harder
2. They might discount the value of the rewards
3. They could try to convince other employees
to ask for more rewards
4. They might choose someone else for
comparison purposes.
• When employees feel Under Rewarded, they
will seek to reduce their feeling of inequity
through any of this following:
1. They might lower the quality or quantity of
their productivity
2. They could inflate the perceived value of the
rewards received
3. They could bargain for more rewards
4. They might quit
 Motivational Theory
of Social Exchange
Person Comparison
other
Equity Outcomes = Outcomes
Inputs Inputs
Negative Outcomes < Outcomes
Inequity Inputs Inputs
Positive Outcomes > Outcomes
Inequity Inputs Inputs
 POSSIBLE REACTIONS TO INEQUITY:
A SUMMARY

TYPE OF REACTION
Behavioral Psychological
Type of Inequity (what you can do is...) (what you can think is...)
Overpayment Raise your inputs (e.g., work Convince yourself that your
inequity harder), or lower your outcomes outcomes are deserved
(e.g. work through a paid based on your inputs (e.g.,
vacation) rationalize that you work
harder than others and so
you deserve more pay)
Underpayment Lower your inputs (e.g., reduce Convince yourself that oth-
inequity effort), or raise your outcomes ers’ inputs are really higher
e.g., get a raise in pay) than your own (e.g., ration-
alize that the comparison
worker is really more quali-
fied and so deserves
higher outcomes)
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 Goal Setting Theory
 Specific and difficult goals, with feedback lead
to higher performance.
 Is based on the premise that behavior is
regulated by the values and goals. A goal is the
specific target that individual is trying to
achieve.
 Values
Goals That are
1. Goals provide direction Specific goals
are more effective
2. Goals mobilize behavior Difficult goals
generate more effort
3. Acceptance and Commitment
4. Evaluate by their Performance
5. Feedback about goal attainment sustains
behavior.
Improve performance