DIFFERENT ENERGY

SOURCES
IDEAL AND NON-IDEAL ENERGY SOURCES

 An Ideal voltage source is a voltage source

that maintains the constant Voltage across its
terminals no matter how much current is drawn
from it.
An ideal Voltage soure will have Zero
internal resistance.
 An ideal current source is a current source in
which can supply constant current regardless of
any voltage drops in the circuit.
The ideal current source will have infinite
internal resistance.
IDEAL VOLTAGE SOURCE
IDEAL CURRENT SOURCE
 Non Ideal voltage source have some internal
resistance in series. Whenever load connected
some drop of voltage observed.
 Non ideal current source have some internal
resistance in parallel.
Whenever load connected current will be slightly
less than the rated constant value.
PRACTICAL VOLTAGE SOURCE
PRACTICAL CURRENT SOURCE
V,I,R
 Voltage is the difference in charge between two
points.
 Current is the rate at which charge is flowing.

 Resistance is a material’s tendency to resist the

flow of charge (current).
ELECTRIC POWER

 Electric power is the rate of energy consumption

in an electrical circuit.
 The electric power is measured in units of watts.

 P is the electric power in watt (W).

 E is the energy consumption in joule (J).

 t is the time in seconds (s).

ACTIVE AND PASSIVE ELEMENTS
 Active electronic components are those that can
control the flow of electricity. Most
electronic printed circuit boards have at least one
active component. Some examples of active
electronic components are transistors, vacuum
tubes, silicon-controlled rectifiers (SCRs).
 Passive electronic components are those that
don’t have the ability to control current by means
of another electrical signal. Examples of passive
electronic components are capacitors, resistors,
inductors, transformers, and diodes.
OHM’S LAW
 Ohm's Law states that the current flowing in a
circuit is directly proportional to the applied
potential difference and inversely proportional to
the resistance in the circuit under constant
physical conditions.
 V=IR
Where:
V = voltage expressed in Volts
I = current expressed in Amps
R = resistance expressed in Ohms
LINEAR AND NON LINEAR ELEMENTS
 Linear elements – In an electric circuit, a linear
element is an electrical element with
a linear relationship between input current and
output voltage. The resistance, inductance or
capacitance offered by an element does not change with
the change in applied voltage or circuit current, the
element is termed as linear element. Resistors are the
most common example of a linear element; other
examples include capacitors, inductors,
and transformers.
NONLINEAR ELEMENTS
 In an electric circuit, a nonlinear element or nonlinear
device is an electrical element which does not have
a linear relationship between current and voltage.
A diode is a simple example. The current I through a
diode is a non-linear function of the voltage V across its
terminals:

 Other examples of nonlinear elements

are transistors and
other semiconductor devices, vacuum tubes, and iron
core inductors and transformers when operated above
their saturation current.
BASICS OF DC
 Concept of notations :
 We adopt the convention that a constant or direct
current (DC) or voltage is represented by an upper-case
letter I or V, while a time-varying or alternating current
(AC) current or voltage is represented by a lower-case
letter i(t) or v(t), sometimes simply i and v.
 Each of the three basic components resistor R, capacitor
C, and inductor L can be described in terms of the
relationship between the voltage across and the current
through the component:

RESISTOR
 The voltage across and the current through a resistor
are related by Ohm's law:

 Here R is the resistance of the conductor measured by

Ohm.
 The reciprocal of the resistance is the conductance:

 Conductance is measured Siemens = 1/Ohm by S.

CAPACITOR
 A capacitor is composed of a pair of conductor plates
separated by some insulation material. The same
amount of charge Q (of opposite polarity) is stored on
the two plates. The voltage V between the two plates is
proportional to the charge Q, but inversely proportional
to the capacitance C of the capacitor:

 We see that capacitance measures the capacity of

capacitor to store charge given a DC voltage, which is
determined by the parameters of the capacitor:

 where A is the overlapping area of the plates and d is

the distance between them.
INDUCTOR

 The self-induced voltage, the electromotive force

(emf), across the inductor coil due to a
current i(t) is proportional to the rate of change of
the total magnetic flux ( being the flux in one of
the turns of the coil) caused by the current i(t):

NETWORK ANALYSIS
 Network: A network, in the context of electrical
and electronics, is a collection of interconnected
components
 Network analysis: Network analysis is the
process of finding the voltages across, and the
currents through, every component in the
network.
CIRCUIT DEFINITIONS
 Node – any point where 2 or more circuit elements are
connected together
 Wires usually have negligible resistance
 Each node has one voltage (w.r.t. ground)
 Branch – a circuit element between two nodes
 Loop – a collection of branches that form a closed path
returning to the same node without going through any
other nodes or branches twice
EXAMPLE
 How many nodes, branches & loops?

R1
+

+ Vs Is
R2 R3 Vo
-

-
EXAMPLE
 Three nodes

R1
+

+ Vs Is
R2 R3 Vo
-

-
EXAMPLE
 5 Branches

R1
+

+ Vs Is
R2 R3 Vo
-

-
EXAMPLE
 Three Loops, if starting at node A

A B
R1
+

+ Vs Is
R2 R3 Vo
-

-
C
CURRENT DIVISION RULE
 Current division refers to the splitting of
current between the branches of the divider. The
currents in the various branches of such a circuit
will always divide in such a way as to minimize
the total energy expended.
 A general formula for the current IX in a
resistor RX that is in parallel with a combination
of other resistors of total resistance RT is:

 where IT is the total current entering the

combined network of RX in parallel with RT.
Notice that when RT is composed of a parallel
combination of resistors, say R1, R2, ... etc., then
the reciprocal of each resistor must be added to
find the total resistance RT:
VOLTAGE DIVISION RULE
 Voltage Division Rule: The voltage is divided between
two series resistors in direct proportion to their
resistance.
 Results
KIRCHOFF’S VOLTAGE LAW (KVL)
 The algebraic sum of voltages around each loop is
zero
 Beginning with one node, add voltages across each
branch in the loop (if you encounter a + sign first)
and subtract voltages (if you encounter a – sign first)
 Σ voltage drops - Σ voltage rises = 0
 Or Σ voltage drops = Σ voltage rises
EXAMPLE
 Kirchoff’s Voltage Law around 1st Loop

A I1 + I1R1 -
B
R1
+
I2 +
+ Vs Is
R2 I2R2 R3 Vo
-

-
-
C
Assign current variables and directions
Use Ohm’s law to assign voltages and polarities consistent with
passive devices (current enters at the + side)
EXAMPLE
 Kirchoff’s Voltage Law around 1st Loop

A I1 + I1R1 -
B
R1
+
I2 +
+ Vs Is
R2 I2R2 R3 Vo
-

-
-
C
Starting at node A, add the 1st voltage drop: -I1R1
EXAMPLE
 Kirchoff’s Voltage Law around 1st Loop

A I1 + I1R1 -
B
R1
+
I2 +
+ Vs Is
R2 I2R2 R3 Vo
-

-
-
C
Add the voltage drop from B to C through R2: -I1R1 -I2R2
EXAMPLE
 Kirchoff’s Voltage Law around 1st Loop

A I1 + I1R1 -
B
R1
+
I2 +
+ Vs Is
R2 I2R2 R3 Vo
-

-
-
C
Subtract the voltage rise from C to A through Vs: - I1R1 -I2R2 +Vs = 0
Notice that the sign of each term matches the polarity encountered 1st
KIRCHOFF’S CURRENT LAW (KCL)
 The algebraic sum of currents entering a node is
zero
 Add each branch current entering the node and
subtract each branch current leaving the node
 Σ currents in - Σ currents out = 0
 Or Σ currents in = Σ currents out
EXAMPLE
 Kirchoff’s Current Law at B

B
A I1
R1
+
I2 I3
+ Vs Is
R2 R3 Vo
-

-
C
Assign current variables and directions
Add currents in, subtract currents out: I1 – I2 – I3 + Is = 0
CIRCUIT ANALYSIS A
+
+ +
I1 I2
10 A 8Ω 4Ω VAB
- -
-
B

By KVL: - I1∙ 8Ω + I2∙ 4Ω = 0

Solving: I 2 = 2 ∙ I1
By KCL: 10A = I1 + I2
Substituting: 10A = I1 + 2 ∙ I1 = 3 ∙ I1
So I1 = 3.33 A and I2 = 6.67 A
And VAB = 26.33 volts
CIRCUIT ANALYSIS A
+

10 A 2.667Ω VAB

-
B

By Ohm’s Law: VAB = 10 A ∙ 2.667 Ω

So VAB = 26.67 volts

Replacing two parallel resistors (8 and 4 Ω)

by one equivalent one produces the same
result from the viewpoint of the rest of the
circuit.
FIND THE CURRENT FLOWING IN THE 5 
RESISTOR OF THE CIRCUIT SHOWN
 Ans= 0.2353 A
SOLUTION
From the left-hand loop: 10 = 2I + 5(I - I )
i.e. 7I - 5I = 10
(1)
From the right-hand loop: 3 = I - 5(I - I )
i.e. -5I + 6I = 3
(2)
5  equation (1) gives: 35I - 25I = 50
(3)
7  equation (2) gives: -35I + 42I = 21
(4)
Equation (3) + equation (4) gives: 17I = 71
from which, I = = 4.1765 A
From equation (1) 7I - 5(4.1765) = 10
i.e. 7I = 10 + 20.8825 = 30.8825
and I = = 4.4118 A
Hence, the current in the 5  resistor = I - I = 4.4118 -
4.1765 = 0.2353 A
USE OF CALCULATORS,
STAR AND DELTA CONNECTIONS
 In STAR connection, the starting or finishing
ends (Similar ends) of three coils are connected
together to form the neutral point. A common
wire is taken out from the neutral point which is
called Neutral.
 In DELTA connection, the opposite ends of three
coils are connected together. In other words, the
end of each coil is connected with the start of
another coil, and three wires are taken out from
the coil joints
DELTA - STAR TRANSFORMATION
STAR - DELTA TRANSFORMATION