100 100%ACAL

MA

Tc is the chip time

R is the average power in the
received signal,

• This signal, r1(t), is integrated for T = kTc seconds and the decision
• statistic for matched filtering is

An M-ary transmission is a type of digital modulation where instead of transmitting one bit at
a time, two or more bits are transmitted simultaneously. This type of transmission results in
reduced channel bandwidth.
.

A false

. The
alarm occurs when a match is declared when, in fact,   ˆ
probability of false alarm, Pfa, is given by
• Phase Offset
• Or “Phase Difference,” this is the difference in time or space between
two waveforms. Many modulation effects are based on manipulating
the phase offset between two waves.
• Detection theory or signal detection theory is a means to measure
the ability to differentiate .... so a liberal bias is likely. In contrast,
crying wolf (a false alarm) too often may make people less likely to
respond, grounds for a conservative bias.

• False alarms are more than an inconvenience; they consume the time
and energy of emergency personnel who may be needed to respond
to a real emergency.
.
•.
• What is a statistical data?
• The branch of mathematics that deals with the collection,
organization, analysis, and interpretation of
numerical data. Statistics is especially useful in drawing
general conclusions about a set of data from a sample of it.
• Statistical noise is unexplained variability within a data sample. The
term noise, in this context, came from signal processing where it was
used to refer to unwanted electrical or electromagnetic energy that
degrades the quality of signals and data.
• A random variable is a variable whose value is unknown or a function
that assigns values to each of an experiment's outcomes
.
•.
,

• A time series is a series of data points indexed (or listed or graphed)

in time order. Most commonly, a time series is a sequence taken at
successive equally spaced points in time.

In signal processing, white noise is a random signal having equal

intensity at different frequencies, giving it a constant power spectral
density.
.
• .
• Deviation the amount by which a single measurement differs from a
fixed value such as the mean.
• Normalizing refers to the process of making something “standard” or,
well, “normal.”
.

taw or is the time delay normalized to Tc; c is the

carrier angular frequency; is the phase distributed
uniformly over (0, 2 ]; and
n(t) is the ambient non-Gaussian channel noise. The
level of n(t) can be estimated
The kth sampled I-Q components are rkI and rkQ and can be
obtained as, for k = 1, 2, …, K

• The factor ai accounts for the effects of the random amplitude

fluctuations in the
specular component
•
The probability of false alarm is given by
• jamming to signal ratio (J/S): The ratio, usually expressed in dB, of
the power of a jamming signal to that of a desired signal at a given
point such as the antenna terminals of a receiver.

• Rayleigh fading models assume that the magnitude of a signal that

has passed through such a transmission medium (also called a
communication channel) will vary randomly, or fade, according to
a Rayleigh distribution — the radial component of the sum of two
uncorrelated Gaussian random variables
• Rayleigh fading is a statistical model for the effect of
a propagation environment on a radio signal, such as that used
by wireless devices.
• What is BER performance?
• The bit error rate (BER) is the number of bit errors per unit time. The
bit error ratio (also BER) is the number of bit errors divided by the
total number of transferred bits during a studied time interval. Bit
error ratio is a unitless performance measure, often expressed as a
percentage.
• A Power Spectral Density (PSD) is the measure of
signal's power content versus frequency. A PSD is typically used to
characterize broadband random signals. The amplitude of the PSD is
normalized by the spectral resolution employed to digitize the signal.
 FSK has several advantages over ASK due to the fact that
the carrier has a constant amplitude. hence, its
immunity to non-linearities, immunity to rapid fading,
immunity to adjacent channel interference, and the
ability to work in small SNR environments due to the
effect of exchanging SNR for bandwidth

Direct sequence spread spectrum (DSSS) is

FSK. In frequency shift keying, the carrier frequency is
changed between discrete values. If only
two frequencies are used then this will be called BFSK,
for binaryfrequency shift keying. In this figure, the same
data is represented, 1011
a transmission technology used in local area
wireless network transmissions. In this
technology, a data signal at the sending
station is combined with a high data rate
bit sequence, which divides user data
based on a spreading ratio.
• Why is the ionosphere important in HF radio
• The free electrons in the ionosphere cause HF radio waves to be
refracted (bent) and eventually reflected back to earth.

• A light-emitting diode (LED) is a semiconductor device that emits

visible light when an electric current passes through it. The light is
not particularly bright, but in most LEDs it is monochromatic,
occurring at a single wavelength.
• How does Trilateration work?
• Using three distances, trilateration can pinpoint a precise location.
Each satellite is at the center of a sphere and where they all intersect
is the position of the GPS receiver. As the position of the GPS receiver
moves, the radius of each circle (distance) will also change.

• Optical power (also referred to as dioptric power, refractive power,

focusingpower, or convergence power) is the degree to which a lens,
mirror, or otheroptical system converges or diverges light. It is equal
to the reciprocal of the focal length of the device: P = 1/f.
• optical gain Quantitatively, gain is a measure of the ability of
a laser medium to increase optical power.

• Attenuation In physics, attenuation or, in some contexts, extinction is

the gradual loss of flux intensity through a medium. For instance,
dark glasses attenuate sunlight, lead attenuates X-rays, and water
and air attenuate both light and sound at variable attenuation rates.
• It is the number of magnetic field lines passing through a surface
(such as a loop of wire). ... The SI unit of magnetic flux is the Weber
(Wb) (in derived units: volt-seconds).

• Higher frequencies tend to be more 'directional' than

lower frequencies
• Do low frequencies have more energy?
• The energy of a wave is not just a matter of frequency. For two
waves of the same amplitude the higher frequency will have higher
energy content because the medium is vibrating at faster speeds and
its particles have higher kinetic energy. ... Loud low
frequency sounds can have more energy than soft high frequency
sounds.
• . Solar flares produce intense ionization of the D layer, causing it to
absorb most HF signals on the side of the earth facing the sun
• in physics, the kinetic energy of an object is the energy that it
possesses due to its motion.
• Signal strengths for mobile networks are always negative dBm values,
because the transmitted network is not strong enough to give
positive dBm values.
 Jamming Strategies…
• BBN jamming raises the background noise levels and, as such, can be
used to attack the synchronization and tracking processes.
• The noise level
H 2Rk
ζ= +J where Uk is the SNR during hop interval k and
is the JSR during the same
K=1
interval.
 HF jammer…
 Searching for radio communication in the HF and VHF bands requires a
frequency capability from 1.6 – 30 MHz for HF and 20 - 500 MHz for VHF.
 These bands cannot be searched with one antenna due to the limitation
in antenna bandwidth, therefore several antennas are required.
Frequency resolution is important for jamming measures, because power
can be saved if the target frequency can be set accurately.
After determination that the received signal is hostile, direction finding
starts.
 Localization can be done if direction finding is performed from several
bearings, however, at low frequencies large antenna apertures are required.
CHANNEL IS MEDIUM
A communication channel or simply channel refers either to a physical
transmission medium such as a wire, or to a logical connection over a multiplexed
medium such as a radio channel in telecommunications and computer
networking.
• connection over a multiplexed medium such as a radio channel
in telecommunications and computer networking. A channel is used
to convey an information signal, for example a digital bit stream, from
one or several senders (or transmitters) to one or several receivers. A
channel has a certain capacity for transmitting information, often
measured by its bandwidth in Hz or its data rate in bits per second.
.
• The power spectral density (PSD) of the signal describes the power present in the signal as a
function of frequency, per unit frequency.
 Euler's identity is the connection between complex numbers and
trigonometry. It makes it clear that multiplication by i corresponds to a rotation by
90 degrees in the complex plane. ... One of the uses of Euler's identity is in removing
trigonometric functions from equations .
10 to negative
power

What is a good bit error rate?

In telecommunication transmission, the bit error rate (BER) is the percentage ofbits that
have errors relative to the total number of bits received in a transmission, usually expressed as
ten to a negative power.
• What is bit error rate in communication?
The bit error rate (BER) is the number of bit
errors per unit time. The bit error ratio (also BER) is
the number of bit errors divided by the total number of
transferred bits during a studied time interval. Bit error ratio is
a unitless performance measure, often expressed as a
percentage.
 .
• What is bit error rate in communication?
• The bit error rate (BER) is the number of bit errors per unit time. The bit
error ratio (also BER) is the number of bit errors divided by the total
number of transferred bits during a studied time interval. Bit error ratio is a
unitless performance measure, often expressed as a percentage.

• What causes bit error rate?

• In digital transmission, the number of bit errors is the number of
received bits of a data stream over a communication channel that have
been altered due to noise, interference, distortion
or bit synchronization errors. The bit error rate (BER) is the number of bit
errors per unit time.
Thermal noise is a noise that is a result of the thermal agitation of
electrons. The thermal noise power depends of the bandwidth and
temperature of the surroundings. T’- BW-Thermal nose..dbm

What is CW tone?
A continuous wave or continuous waveform (CW) is an
electromagnetic wave of constant amplitude and frequency, almost
always a sine wave, that for mathematical analysis is considered to be
of infinite duration
• sweep jamming: Jamming in which (a) a narrow frequency band of
jamming energy is repeatedly swept over a relatively wide frequency
band, (b) the sweep rate is such as to be on any given frequency only
long enough to accomplish its jamming task, returning to that
frequency again before the expiration of the
jammed circuit recovery time. Note 1: Sweep jamming combines the
advantages of both spot- and barrage-jamming by rapid electronic
sweeping of a narrow band of jamming signals over a broad
frequency spectrum. Note 2: The disadvantage of sweep-jamming is
its high susceptibility to electronic counter-countermeasures. [From
Weik '89]

In an electrical installation, an
earthing system or grounding
system connects specific parts of
that installation with the Earth's
conductive surface for safety and
functional purposes.
In electrical
engineering, ground or earth i
s the reference point in
an electrical circuit from which
voltages are measured, a
common return path for electric
current, or a direct physical
connection to the earth.
AMPLITUDE
"Amplitude is the height, force or power of the wave"

• What is important to remember — frequency, cycle and wavelength

remain constant, however, the height of the wave form is dynamic
based on the power of the wave. The higher power, or amplitude,
the higher the wave form peeks. The lower the power, or amplitude,
the lower the wave form peeks all while frequency, cycle and
wavelength remain the same.
• That’s precisely what you do when you plug your appliance into a wall
socket: a potential difference is established between the wall socket
and the laptop charger, allowing current to flow to the laptop.
1 completion of reaping wave pattern is a cycle

A time taken to complete 1 cycle is period

• What is relationship between voltage and frequency? Frequency is
the number of cycles that a voltage waveform repeats itself per
seconds. A voltage with 0 frequency in effect is steady at a
certain value which is also known as DC voltage.
A wave can be described as a disturbance that travels
through a medium from one location to another location.
.
Amplitude. ... Amplitude is the maximum value of current or voltage.
It is represented by either of the two peaks of the since wave.
This voltage level is also referred to as the peak voltage, and can be
either positive or negative.
 Windowing is the process of taking a small subset
of a larger dataset, for processing and analysis.
Total harmonic distortion (THD) is a measurement that
• tells you how much of the distortion of a voltage or current
is due to harmonics in the signal. THD is an important
aspect in audio, communications, and power systems and
should typically, but not always, be as low as possible.

Distortion is the alteration of the original shape of

something. In communications and electronics it
means the alteration of the waveform of an information-
bearing signal, such as an audio signal representing
sound or a video signal representing images, in an
electronic device or communication channel
.
• Jitter period is the interval between two times of maximum effect (or minimum effect) of
a signal characteristic that varies regularly with time. Jitter frequency, the more
commonly quoted figure, is its inverse
A periodic waveform has a DC offset if the average value of the waveform
over one period is not zero.

A duty cycle is the percentage of

the waveform that occurs above the zero
axis.

Pw 50% current flow the

ckt 50% of the time..and
viceversa
100% no time the ckt is off
When I increase the duty cycle the output
voltage also increase and vice versa

Vout = vmax *dutycycle

.
ramp increase the level or
amount of (something)
sharply
 .
•.

Span: The span

selection is the
extent of the
frequency coverage
that is to be viewed or
monitored when
using the spectrum
analyzer.
 Note form at ppt
.
•.
 Tone 1
and tone
. 2

•.
Reference level
 • RBW stands for Resolution Bandwidth; it is used to view distinctly two
very closely spaced signals in frequency domain. It is mainly used for
phase noise measurement purpose.
An envelope detector is an electronic circuit that takes a
(relatively) high-frequency amplitude modulated signal as
input and provides an output which is the envelope of the
original signal. .

I know that real power is the power consumed by the circuit

.
A 1-mW signal has a level of 0 dBm. Signals weaker
•than
. 1 mW have negative dBm values; signals stronger
than 1 mW have positive dBm values.

In telecommunications, spectral component is any of the waves that range

outside the interval of frequencies assigned to a signal.
 •. That is the number of cycles 2.4
GHz and 5 GHz (WiFi) uses to
transport data from one radio
over the air to another radio.

"Amplitude is the height, force

or power of the wave" - The
CWNA definition of Amplitude
v106

There are different types of frequency; light, sound and

in our case radio frequency (RF).
 . PHASE
Phase is the same frequency, same cycle, same wavelength,
but are 2 or more wave forms not exactly aligned together.
• The phase involves the relationship between the position of the amplitude crests and troughs of two
waveforms.

• Smaller RBW the higher resolution of the scan

• Span decrease spectrum analyser scan smaller BW.
• Modern spectrum analysers set rbw to provide optimum resolution bw
• Rbw decrease u can see the difference of the two freq. ocilating
Amplitude modulation (AM) is the technique in which the amplitude
(peak-to-peak voltage) of the carrier wave is varied as a function of
time in proportion to the strength of the data signal. As shown
in Figure 2.3, the originally constant amplitude of the carrier signal rises
and falls with each high and low of the data signal.
•
 .
•.
Jitter is the variation in a signal’s timing from its nominal value. Jitter
will manifest itself as variations in phase, period, width, or
duty cycle. Noise is the variation of a signal’s amplitude from
nominal. Both noise and jitter can cause transmission errors and
increase the bit error rate of a serial link.

In spectrum analysis, the resolution bandwidth

(RBW) is defined as the frequency span of the final
filter that is applied to the input signal. Smaller RBWs
provide finer frequency resolution and the ability to
differentiate signals that have frequencies that are
closer together
• Phase Noise
• Another factor that affects the frequency resolution of an analyzer is
the phase noise. This is observed as a widening and increase in the
noise amplitude near the center frequency of the signal (figure 3). It
is caused by the random thermal fluctuations of the oscillator used as
a timing reference in the spectrum analyzer circuitry
Frequency deviation ( ) is used in FM radio to describe the maximum
difference between an FM modulated frequency and the nominal carrier
frequency. The term is sometimes mistakenly used as synonymous
with frequency drift, which is an unintended offset of an oscillator from its
nominal frequency.
• What is LO frequency?
• In electronics, a local oscillator (LO) is an electronic oscillator used
with a mixer to change the frequency of a signal.
This frequency conversion process, also called heterodyning,
produces the sum and difference frequencies from the frequency of
the local oscillator and frequency of the input signal
.
• The sweep rate can be either linear or logarithmic. When it is linear,
the controller spends the same amount of time at each frequency.
When it is logarithmic, the controller accomplishes the same amount
of cycles at each frequency. With a logarithmic sweep rate, less time
is spent at higher frequencies than at lower frequencies, since more
cycles are happening every second at higher frequencies.
• Phase-shift keying (PSK) is a digital modulation process which conveys data by changing
(modulating) the phase of a constant frequency reference signal (the carrier wave). The
modulation is accomplished by varying the sine and cosine inputs at a precise time. It is widely
used for wireless LANs, RFID and Bluetooth communication.
What is a trigger signal?
Most oscilloscopes are equipped
with a trigger circuit to start
measuring when a certain The EXT trigger source uses the external
condition occurs in the signal connected to the external trigger input.
input signal. Triggering is used (The external signal must have a time
both for capturing relationship to the measured signal
unique signal events and to
stabilize the display of
repetitive signals.
• The output impedance of an electrical network is the measure
of the opposition to current flow, both static and dynamic, into
the load network being connected that is internal to the
electrical source.
• The output impedance is the ratio of change in output voltage to
change in load current. .
Sweep mode MODE parameter: Select LINear (No.1) or LOGarthimic (No.2). In
linear sweep mode, the output frequency changes in a linear fashion during a
sweep, whereas in LOG mode the frequency changes exponentially. The spacing
is calculated automatically based on start frequencies, stop frequencies and
sweep time.
 • Harmonic an overtone
accompanying a fundamental tone at
, a fixed interval, produced by
vibration of a string, column of air,
etc. in an exact fraction of its length.

Harmonic distortion is the distortion of the

signal due to these harmonics. A voltage or
current that is purely sinusoidal has no harmonic
distortion because it is a signal consisting of a
single frequency

A function generator is usually a piece

Rectification is the process in which an alternating
current is forced to only flow in one direction. Eg
diode make this
arbitrary waveform generator is a form of test
equipment that is able to produce virtually any
wave shape that is required.
of electronic test
equipment or software used to generate
different types of electrical waveforms over
a wide range of frequencies. Some of the
most common waveforms produced by the
function generator are the sine wave ,
square wave, triangular wave and sawtooth
shapes.
 A rectifier is an electrical device that converts alternating
current (AC), which periodically reverses direction, to direct
current(DC), which flows in only one direction.
• The RMS value is the effective value of a
varying voltage or current. It is the equivalent steady DC
(constant) value which gives the same effect. For
example, a lamp connected to a 6V RMS AC supply will
shine with the same brightness when connected to a
steady 6V DC supply.
• In radio engineering, an antenna is the interface between radio
waves propagating through space and electric currents moving in
metal conductors, used with
a transmitter or receiver.[1] In transmission, a radio transmitter
supplies an electric current to the antenna's terminals, and the
antenna radiates the energy from the current as electromagnetic
waves (radio waves). In reception, an antenna intercepts some of the
power of a radio wave in order to produce an electric current at its
terminals, that is applied to a receiver to be amplified. Antennas are
essential components of all radio equipment.
A pulse wave or pulse train is a kind of non-
sinusoidal waveform that includes square
waves (duty cycle of 50%) and similarly periodic
but asymmetrical waves (duty cycles other than
50%)
• In physics, power is the rate of doing work or of transferring heat, i.e. the
amount of energy transferred or converted per unit time. Having no direction,
it is a scalar quantity.

Rectification is the process in which an

alternating current is forced to only flow in one
direction.
•Done using diodes since diodes could only allow
current to flow in one direction only.
• What is unipolar and bipolar signals?
• Unipolar inputs. Unipolar signals swing from zero to positive full-scale,
thus having only a positive polarity. With the single-ended analog input of
an ADC, the input ranges from zero-scale (typically ground) to full-scale
(typically the reference voltage).
• What is Bipolar RZ?
• In telecommunication, bipolar encoding is a type of return-to-zero (RZ)
line code, where two nonzero values are used, so that the three values
are +, −, and zero. Such a signal is called a duobinary signal.
Standard bipolar encodings are designed to be DC-balanced, spending
equal amounts of time in the + and − states.
 A Square Wave (both unipolar and bipolar)
A Sawtooth Wave (both unipolar and bipolar)
A Sine Wave (bipolar only)
A unipolar wave is one which does not change polarity with time, it does
not matter if it is biased or not.
A bipolar is one which changes polarity with time, like a sine wave.
• Signals with longer duty cycles carry more power. This makes the signal
stronger, more reliable and easily detected by receiving equipment. Signals
with longer duty cycles require less efficient receivers than do signals with
shorter duty cycles.
• Determine the duty cycle, represented by "D," through the formula D =
PW/T. As an example, if PW is 0.02 seconds and T is 0.05 seconds, then D =
0.02/0.05 = 0.4, or 40%.
 Difference between Hertz and Duty Cycle
• If duty cycle is the high to low ratio of each pulse, what exactly is "50 duty
cycles" supposed to mean? What you should say is 50 cycles at a % duty
cycle. # of cycles is not the same thing as the duty cycle.

Yes Hertz is cycles per second but

refers more broadly to say sine
waves, square waves, events, etc.
Duty cycle is only loosely related in
this context.
So 50 cycles per second of a square
wave is 50Hz regardless of whether it
has a 50/50 duty cycle or a 10/90, or
whatever it is.
• In a direct sequence spread spectrum system, the signal is multiplied by a
high rate pseudo-random binary sequence, with the result that the
transmitted signal's power spectrum is spread over a significantly larger
bandwidth.
•
Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum
In a frequency-hopped (FH) spread spectrum system, the carrier
frequency of the
signal is changed (hopped) in a pseudo-random fashion over a large
band of frequencies.
Spectrum analyzers are useful tools for broadcast monitoring, RF component
testing, and EMI troubleshooting.
• Synthetic-aperture radar (SAR) is a form of radar that is used to
create two-dimensional images or three-dimensional
reconstructions of objects, such as landscapes.[1] SAR uses the motion
of the radar antenna over a target region to provide finer spatial
resolution than conventional beam-scanning radars. SAR is typically
mounted on a moving platform, such as an aircraft or spacecraft, and
has its origins in an advanced form of side looking airborne
radar (SLAR).
 A voltage with 0 frequency in effect is steady at
a certain value which is also known as DC voltage.
• So 240V AC 50 Hz, means that the voltage waveform does the above cycle fifty time
per second and swings between positive 240Volts and negative 240Volts.
A spectrum analyser measures the magnitude of an input signal versus
frequency within the full frequency range of the instrument. The primary use
is to measure the power of the spectrum of known and unknown signals
The input signal that a spectrum analyzer measures is electrical; however,
spectral compositions of other signals, such as acoustic pressure waves and
optical light waves, can be considered through the use of an appropriate
transducer. Optical spectrum analyzers also exist, which use direct optical
techniques such as a monochromator to make measurements.
 Spectral density
. of a time series describes the distribution of power
The power spectrum

into frequency components composing that signal.

The magnitude of a variable, on the other hand, is the measure of how

far, regardless of direction, its quantity differs from zero.

The amplitude of a variable is the measure of how far, and in

what direction, that variable differs from zero. Thus,
signal amplitudes can be either positive or negative.
.
•.
• Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK)
With ASK the amplitude of the carrier signal is switched between either of
two values corresponding to binary symbols 0 and 1
• Phase Shift Keying (PSK)
In BPSK, the modulating data signal shifts the phase of the waveform to
one of two states, either zero or 𝜋.
•
Frequency Shift Keying (FSK)
In Binary FSK, the frequency of a constant amplitude carrier signal is
switched between either of two values corresponding to binary symbols 0
and 1
• VSWR. VSWR (Voltage Standing Wave Ratio), is a measure of how
efficiently radio-frequency power is transmitted from a power
source, through a transmission line, into a load (for example, from a
power amplifier through a transmission line, to an antenna)
• . It is possible to derive the most basicVSWR
formula or equation directly from its definition. The VSWR definition
states that the VSWR is equal to the maximum voltage on the line
divided by the minimum voltage.
• Automatic Level Control (ALC) is a technology that automatically
controls output power to the speaker.
• The RF output power of the signal generator is constantly monitored
and controlled by the automatic leveling control (ALC) circuit
• ALC stands for Automatic Level Control, and is a way of preventing
excessive RF drive to the PA stages of your transmitter. By 'excessive' I
mean a level of drive which will cause either distortion of SSB signals,
increased levels of harmonics or physical damage to the final stages.
• Power Amplifier. The function of a power amplifier is to raise
the power level of input signal. It is required to deliver a large
amount of power and has to handle large current.

• Peak envelope power (PEP) is the highest envelope power supplied

to the antenna transmission line by a transmitter during any full
undistorted RF cycle or series of complete radio frequency cycles.
 .
• An amplifier is an electronic device that increases the voltage, current,
or power of a signal. Amplifiers are used in wireless communications and
broadcasting, and in audio equipment of all kinds. They can be categorized as
either weak-signal amplifiers or power amplifiers.
• The two channels can also be combined, or bridged together to provide more
output to one dedicated channel, and is commonly done to power a subwoofer
or subwoofers. 2-Channel amplifiers are stereo, meaning they have a Left and
Right output.
 .
• A two-port network (a kind of four-terminal network or quadripole) is
an electrical network (circuit) or device with two pairs of terminals to connect to
external circuits
• What is power gain of an amplifier?
• In electronics, gain is a measure of the ability of a two-port circuit (often an
amplifier) to increase the power or amplitude of a signal from the input to the
output port by adding energy converted from some power supply to the signal.
... It is often expressed using the logarithmic decibel (dB) units ("dB gain").
2 The power gain of an electrical network is the ratio of an output power to an
input power.
 ‘

where
•Pload is the maximum time averaged power delivered to the load, where the maximization is over the load
impedance, i.e., we desire the load impedance which maximizes the time averaged power delivered to the load.
•Pinput is the time averaged power entering the network
If the time averaged input power depends on the load impedance, one must take the maximum of the ratio--not
just the maximum of the numerator.
Electrical impedance is the measure of the opposition that a circuit presents to a current
when a voltage is applie
In electronics, an antenna amplifier (also: aerial amplifier (booster), Am antennefier) is a device that amplifies an
antenna signal,

the jamming frequency must be the same as the

downlink, because it needs lower power to do jamming than the
uplink range and there is no need to jam the base station itself. So, our
frequency design will be asfollows:
 d/ce from
paralle
mode

Peak Envelope Power means the average power supplied to the antenna transmission line by a transmitter during one
radiofrequency cycle at the crest of the modulation envelope taken under normal operating conditions.
Peak envelope power (PEP) is the highest envelope power supplied to the antenna transmission line by a transmitter
during any full undistorted RF cycle or series of complete radio frequency cycles

Peak Envelope Power is usually measured in a resistive load, and in that case it is simply given by PEP=V2/2/R (where V
is the peak RF voltage) or PEP=VRMS2/R.
 .
•.

. In a single phase system, there is one

neutral wire and one power wire with
current flowing between them.
.
ion density. (Or ion concentration.) In
•. atmospheric electricity, the number of ionsper
unit volume of a given sample of air; more
particularly, the number of ions of given type
(positive small ion, negative small ion,
positive large ion, etc.) per unit volume of air
Oscillation is the repetitive variation, typically in time, of some measure about a
central value (often a point of equilibrium) or between two or more different states

• Polarization (also polarisation) is a property applying to transverse waves that specifies the
geometrical orientation of the oscillations
• In physics, a transverse wave is a moving wave whose oscillations are
perpendicular (right angled) to the direction of the wave.
• A Fresnel zone is a cylindrical ellipse drawn between transmitter and receiver.
The size of the ellipse is determined by the frequency of operation and the
distance between the two sites. First and secondFresnel zones.
The zenith is an imaginary point directly "above" a particular location, on the imaginary celestial sphere. "Above" means in
the vertical direction opposite to the apparent gravitational force at that location. The opposite
direction, i.e. the direction in which gravity pulls, is toward the nadir. The zenith is the "highest"
point on the celestial sphere.
The solar zenith angle is the angle between
the zenith and the centre of the Sun's disc. The solar
elevation angle is the altitude of the Sun, the angle
between the horizon and the centre of the Sun's disc.
Since these two angles are complementary, the cosine of
either one of them equals the sine of the other. They can
both be calculated with the same formula, using results
from spherical trigonometry.[

Amateur radio, also known as ham radio, describes the

use of radio frequency spectrum for purposes of non-
commercial exchange of
messages, wireless experimentation, self-training, private
recreation, radiosport, contesting, and emergency
communication
• A volt-ampere (VA) is the unit used for the apparent power in an electrical
circuit, equal to the product of root-mean-square (RMS) voltageand RMS current
• Electrical power is measured in watts. In an electrical system power (P) is equal
to the voltage multiplied by the current.
• Apparent power (VA) is the easiest to measure; it is what you get when you
measure the rms volts with one meter and the rms amps with another meter
and multiply the two.
• Active Low means Device/Pin will be active when Low Voltage (0v) is applied to
it.
 signal level - the amplitude level of the desired signal

• Active low refers low voltage i.e. 0V to 1V where as Active High refers to
Voltage level between 3.5V to 5V. ... When it comes to Logic levels, there is the
active low and active high states which just signifies that the pin is activated. If
it's an active-low pin, you must “pull” that pin LOW by connecting it to ground.
 A power supply unit (or PSU) converts mains AC to low-voltage
regulated DC power for the internal components of a computer.

• The PSU normally supplies +3.3 V, +5 V, and +12 V to the system. These voltages are often
called rails, referring to the fact that although there are multiple wires carrying a specific
voltage, they are normally tied to a single rail (or tap) in the PSU.
• Voltage, Nominal. A nominal value assigned to a circuit or system for the purpose of
conveniently designating its voltage class (e.g., 120/240 volts, 480Y/277 volts, 600 volts). The
actual voltage at which a circuit operates can vary from the nominal within a range that
permits satisfactory operation of equipment’
• The function of the CPU is to store and run the PLC software programs
A transistor is a semiconductor device used to amplify or switch electronic signals and electrical power.
It is composed of semiconductor material usually with at least three terminals for connection to
an external circuit.
.
• A hole is the absence of an electron in a particular place in an atom.
Although it is not a physical particle in the same sense as an electron,
a hole can be passed from atom to atom in a semiconductor material.
Electrons orbit the nucleus at defined energy levels called bands or
shells. A bipolar junction transistor (bipolar transistor or BJT) is a
type of transistor that uses both electron and hole charge
carriers. In contrast, unipolar transistors, such as field-effect
transistors, only use one kind of charge carrier.

Transistor–Transistor Logic (TTL) is a class of digital circuits

built from transistors and resistors. It is called transistor–
transistor logic because the logic function (e.g., AND) and
amplification is performed by transistors. Many integrated
circuits have TTL technology.
• A software wizard or setup assistant is a user interface type that presents a user
with a sequence of dialog boxes that lead the user through a series of well-
defined steps. Tasks that are complex, infrequently performed, or unfamiliar
may be easier to perform using a wizard.
• When used while measuring potential difference, zero volt simply means the
two points in measurement has same electric potential. Potential difference is
always measured between two points. ... If the source provides no energy then
the emf of the source is zero volt. Also, the ground does not have zero voltage
• Earth or Ground is for safety concerns against leakage or residual currents on
the system via least resistance path.
• While phase and neutral is connected to main power wiring, earth may be
connected to body of equipment or to any system which in normal condition
doesn’t carry current but in case of some insulation failure, is supposed to carry
some minor current.
• Main Reasons for Insulation Failure. Some of the main reasons for insulation failure include: Natural
deterioration due to aging. Accelerated by excessive heat and moisture. Heat, moisture and dirt are main
causes of insulation failure.
• Automatic Level Control. Abstract: Automatic Level Control (ALC) is a technology that
automatically controls output power to the speaker
• A digital circuit is a circuit where the signal must be one of two discrete levels. Each level is
interpreted as one of two different states (for example, on/off, 0/1, true/false). Digital
circuits use transistors to create logic gates in order to perform Boolean logic.
• Negative logic means that things will be activated, enabled etc. with a logic 0. Active low
means the function gets done when input is in low state. Active high means function gets
done when input is in high state. If there is a chip which enables the output then there will be
a pin CE called chip enable.
Direct current (DC) is the unidirectional flow of an electric charge
Direct current (DC) is the unidirectional flow of an electric charge. A battery is a prime example
of DC power. Direct current may flow through a conductor such as a wire.
DC supply The term DC is used to refer to power systems that use only one polarity of voltage
or current, and to refer to the constant, zero-frequency, or slowly varying local mean value of a
voltage or current.
BJTs are manufactured in two types, NPN and PNP, and are available as individual
components, or fabricated in integrated circuits, often in large numbers.
The basic function of a BJT is to amplify signals.
• A bipolar junction transistor (bipolar transistor or BJT) is a type
of transistor that uses both electron and hole charge carriers. In contrast,
unipolar transistors, such as field-effect transistors, only use one kind of charge
carrier. For their operation, BJTs use two junctions between
two semiconductortypes, n-type and p-type.
• Transistor–transistor logic (TTL) is a logic family built from bipolar junction
transistors. Its name signifies that transistors perform both the logic function
(the first "transistor") and the amplifying function (the second "transistor"); it
is the same naming convention used in resistor–transistor logic (RTL)
and diode–transistor logic (DTL).
• TTL integrated circuits (ICs) were widely used in applications such as
• onsumer electronics, and synthesizers
 Half duplex - In a half-duplex system, both parties can communicate with each other, but
not simultaneously; the communication is one direction at a time.

• Push-to-talk (PTT), also known as press-to-transmit, is a method of having

conversations or talking on half-duplex communication lines, including two-way radio,
using a momentary button to switch from voice reception mode to transmit mode.
• IEC connector is the common name for the set of thirteen power line connectors. They
are defined by the International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) specification IEC
60320, and these IEC connectors are widely used for the power connections on
electrical and electronic equipment.
• Antenna tuner, matching network, matchbox, transmatch, antenna tuning unit (ATU),
antenna coupler, and feedline coupler are all equivalent names for a device connected
between a radio transmitter and its antenna, to improve power transfer between
them by matching the specified load impedance of the radio to the combined input
impedance of the feedline and the antenna.
• SWR is defined as the ratio of the maximum radio-frequency (RF) voltage to the
minimum RF voltage along the line.
• SWR is, thus, the ratio between transmitted and reflected waves. A high SWR indicates poor
transmission-line efficiency and reflected energy, which can damage the transmitter and
decrease transmitter efficiency. Since SWR commonly refers to the voltage ratio, it is usually
known as voltage standing wave ratio (VSWR). Less ratio means we transmit all

Attenuation is a general term that refers to any reduction in the strength of a

signal [signal power]. The extent of attenuation is usually
expressed in units called decibels (dBs).

attenuation or, in some contexts, extinction is the gradual

loss of flux intensity
 A network is a group of stations sharing channels, a calling system and other
characteristics. As well as each channel being named, each network is also named,
for example CODAN Net
• signal-to-noise ratio (S/N or SNR)
• In analog and digital communications, signal-to-noise ratio, often written S/N or SNR, is a measure
of signal strength relative to background noise.
• The ratio is usually measured in decibels (dB) using a signal-to-noise ratio
formula. If the incoming signal strength in microvolts is Vs, and the noise level,
also in microvolts, is Vn, then the signal-to-noise ratio, S/N, in decibels is given
by the formula: S/N = 20 log10(Vs/Vn)

• If Vs = Vn, then S/N = 0. In this situation, the signal borders on unreadable,

because the noise level severely competes with it. In digital communications, this
will probably cause a reduction in data speed because of frequent errors that
require the source (transmitting) computer or terminal to resend some packets
of data.
 signal-to-noise ratio (S/N or SNR)
• Ideally, Vs is greater than Vn, so a high signal-to-noise ratio is positive. As an example,
suppose that Vs = 10.0 microvolts and Vn = 1.00 microvolt. Then:
• S/N = 20 log10(10.0) = 20.0 dB
• If Vs is less than Vn, then S/N is negative, representing a low signal-to-noise ratio. In this
type of situation, reliable communication is generally not possible unless steps are taken to
increase the signal level and/or decrease the noise level at the destination (receiving)
computer or terminal.

• The RF-section is responsible for generating and transmitting the RF-Jamming

signal. The main parts are: VCO, Power Amplifier, and the Antenna.
• An isotropic antenna is an ideal antenna that radiates its power
uniformly in all directions. There is no actual physical isotropic
antenna.
• Linear vs. logarithmic scales.
• Human hearing is better measured on a logarithmic scale than a linear scale. On a linear scale, a change
between two values is perceived on the basis of the difference between the values:
• e.g., a change from 1 to 2 would be perceived as the same increase as from 4 to 5.
• On a logarithmic scale, a change between two values is perceived on the basis of the ratio of the two values:
e.g., a change from 1 to 2 would be perceived as the same increase as a change from 4 to 8.
• A directional antenna or beam antenna is an antenna which radiates or receives
greater power in specific directions allowing increased performance and reduced
interference from unwanted sources.
Decibels – If a receiver is very sensitive to RF signals, it may be able to pick up signals as small
as 0.000000001 Watts.

• A logarithm is the exponent to which the number 10 must be raised to reach some given
value. If we are given the number 1000 and asked to find the logarithm (log), we find that log
1000 = 3 because 10^3 = 1000. Notice that our logarithm, 3, is the exponent. An important
thing to note about logarithms is that the logarithm of a negative number or of zero does not
exist.
• What Is A Rectifier?
• Answer :
• A rectifier changes alternating current into direct current. This process is called rectification.
The three main types of rectifier are the halfwave, fullwave, and bridge. A rectifier is the
opposite of an inverter, which changes direct current into alternating current. HWR The
simplest type is the halfwave rectifier, which can be made with just one diode. When the
voltage of the alternating current is positive, the diode becomes forwardbiased and current
flows through it. When the voltage is negative, the diode is reversebiased and the current
stops.
• The result is a clipped copy of the alternating current waveform with only positive voltage,
and an average voltage that is one third of the peak input voltage. This pulsating direct current
is adequate for some components, but others require a more steady current. This requires a
fullwave rectifier that can convert both parts of the cycle to positive voltage.
• FWR The fullwave rectifier is essentially two halfwave rectifiers, and can be made with two
diodes and an earthed centre tap on the transformer. The positive voltage half of the cycle
flows through one diode, and the negative half flows through the other. The centre tap allows
the circuit to be completed because current cannot flow through the other diode. The result is
still a pulsating direct current but with just over half the input peak voltage, and double
the frequency
• A transistor is a miniature electronic component that can do two different jobs. It can work
either as an amplifier or a switch: When it works as an amplifier, it takes in a tiny electric
current at one end (an input current) and produces a much bigger electric current (an output
current) at the other

dB stands for decibel, which is of course used to

measure sound, but is also a relative measurement of
two different power levels. As such the number before
dB is a ratio, not an absolute measurement.

For example, in the two sections below we will talk

What this means for a wifi router is that it is a
measure of the power coming out of the antenna
which can affect the range your router can work
at. If your dBm is too low, you may find that your
connection is weak and you are unable to use your
network as you would like.
about dBm, which is the power in relation to one
milliwatt, and dBi, which is the power in relation to an
isotropic reference antenna. A dB just represents gain or
loss. Without referencing it to something else it is
impossible to know what the number is representing.
dB is however used to provide a dBm or dBi
measurement...

dBm = power. The amount of relative power transmitted by the amplifier.

dBi = gain. The amount of 'gain' an antenna puts on a signal. Normal router antennas
(omni-directional) will cover more horizontal area with higher 'gain', but not cover the
vertical area as much.
What is dBm?

dBm stands for decibels relative to a

milliwatts and it refers to the power ratio in
decibels when referenced to milliwatts.
dBm is normally associated with power
emitted from an amplifier. Power itself is
usually measured in milliwatts -
represented as mW.

This 50-amp voltage protector helps

protect your RV from damage caused by
low or high voltage and power spikes
and surges. It automatically disconnects
when dangerous voltage levels are
detected and reconnects when voltage
levels stabilize
The term "amplitude" is used to refer to the magnitude of an oscillation, so the amplitude of the sinusoid "y =
A × sin (ω×t)", is | A |, where | A | is the absolute value of A. . With sound waves, it is the extent to which air
particles are displaced, and this amplitude of sound or sound amplitudeis experienced as the loudness of
sound.
Harmonic motion:
Displacement = A × sin (2 × π × f × t), that means:
A = amplitude (peak), f = frequency, t = time. Amplitude is the
magnitude of change in the oscillating variable with each
oscillation within an oscillating system.
A transceiver is a device comprising both a transmitter and a
receiver that are combined and share common circuitry or a single
housing. In radio terminology, a transceiver means a unit which
contains both a receiver and a transmitter. From the beginning
days of radio the receiver and transmitter were separate units and
remained so until around 1920. Amateur radio or "ham" radio
operators can build their own equipment and it is now easier to
design and build a simple unit containing both of the functions:
transmitting and receiving. Almost all modern amateur radio
equipment is now a transceiver but there is an active market for
pure radio receivers, mainly for shortwave listening (SWL)
operators. An example of a transceiver would be a walkie-talkie or
a CB radio.
• To convert a ratio to dB, do log and then times by 10.
Example: ratio = 1234 times. Log(1234) = 3.09. Ten times 3.09 = 30.9 dB
• To convert dB to ratio, divide by 10 and then do ten to the x, like 10x
Example: dB = +12.5 dB. Divide +12.5 by 10 = +1.25. Do 101.25 = 17.8 ratio.
Equivalent Isotropically Radiated Power [eirp]
Equivalent Isotropically Radiated Power (EIRP) is the product of transmitter power
and the antenna gain in a given direction relative to an isotropic antenna of a radio
• Interesting facts: transmitter. Normally the EIRP is given in dBi, or decibels over isotropic.
• A 50 dBW EIRP downlink satellite beam, means that it looks like a 100,000 watt
transmitter connected to an omni-directional satellite antenna. You could get the
same effect using a 100 watt (+20 dBW) satellite transmitter connected to a directional
downlink antenna, with a small coverage beam diameter, having a gain of 30 dBi, and
you located on the ground at the centre of the satellite beam coverage pattern.
• An uplink power flux density (at the satellite) due to a 1 watt VSAT transmitter on the
ground is typically around -119 dBW/m^2 or 0.0000000000012589 watts per square
metre at the satellite height. So, if you have a receive antenna on the satellite with an
effective area of 1 square metre then the signal power going into the satellite receiver
is -119 dBW.
• A link budget is an accounting of all of the gains and losses from the
transmitter, through the medium (free space, cable, waveguide, fiber,
etc.) to the receiver in a telecommunication system.
• In radio engineering, an antenna is the interface between radio waves propagating through space and
electric currents moving in metal conductors, used with a transmitter or receiver.[1] In transmission, a radio
transmitter supplies an electric current to the antenna's terminals, and the antenna radiates the energy from
the current as electromagnetic waves(radio waves). In reception, an antenna intercepts some of the power of
a radio wave in order to produce an electric current at its terminals, that is applied to a receiver to
be amplified. Antennas are essential components of all radio equipment.

• Why carrier frequency is higher than modulating frequency?

• To increase the energy of the signal we need to increase the frequency. This is achieved by multiplying the
message signal with the carrier signal (with high frequency). this is when the carrier frequency is higher , and
we noticed that bandwidth is just twice of the highest frequency of modulating sign
The D region attenuates signals because the radio signals cause the free electrons in the region to vibrate. As they vibrate the
electrons collide with molecules, and at each collision there is a small loss of energy. With countless millions of electrons
vibrating, the amount of energy loss becomes noticeable and manifests itself as a reduction in the overall signal level. The
amount of signal loss is dependent upon a number of factors: One is the number of gas molecules that are present. The greater
the number of gas molecules, the higher the number of collisions and hence the higher the attenuation.
D ….The level of ionisation is also very important. The higher the level of ionisation, the greater the number of
electrons that vibrate and collide with molecules. The third main factor is the frequency of the signal. As the
frequency increases, the wavelength of the vibration shortens, and the number of collisions between the free
electrons and gas molecules decreases. As a result signals lower in the radio frequency spectrum are attenuated far
more than those which are higher in frequency. Even so high frequency signals still suffer some reduction in signal
strength.

when power is increased voltage is increased the wavelet becomes larger ..but it vibrates in same frequency only..same
frequency with different power travel different distance..as power is related to volt or amplitude of the wave..so wavelet
becomes larger ...high data rate using mw frequency ..at the same time with high power
What is the relationship between frequency and period?
Frequency, f, is how many cycles of an oscillation occur per second and is measured in cycles per second or hertz (Hz). The
period of a wave, T, is the amount of time it takes a wave to vibrate one full cycle. These two terms are inversely proportional
to each other: f = 1/T and T = 1/f.

Active Low means Device/Pin will be active when Low Voltage (0v) is applied to it. You must apply +5v to vcc to make chip
working.
• the density of air or atmospheric density, denoted ρ (Greek: rho), is the mass per unit volume
of Earth's atmosphere. Air density, like air pressure, decreases with increasing altitude. It also
changes with variation in atmospheric pressure, temperature and humidity

• ångström is a unit of length equal to 10−10 m; that is, one ten-billionth of

a metre, 0.1 nanometre, or 100 picometres. Its symbol is Å, a letter of
the Swedish alphabet.
• Within the HF spectrum, groups of frequencies are allocated to specific
radio services — aviation, maritime, military, government, broadcast,
or amateur

• To convey information, a carrier must be varied so that its properties — its

amplitude, frequency, or phase (the measurement of a complete wave cycle) —
are changed, or modulated, by the information signal.
• The simplest method of modulating a carrier is by turning it on and off by
means of a telegraph key. On-off keying (using Morse code) was the
only method of conveying wireless messages in the early days of radio.
• A telegraph key is a specialized electrical switch used by a trained operator
to transmit text messages in telegraph systems, usually in Morse code.
• Morse code is a character encoding scheme used in telecommunication
that encodes text characters as standardized sequences of two different
signal durations called dots and dashes or dits and dahs
Computer graphics are pictures and films created using computers

• Rendering or image synthesis is the automatic process of generating a

photorealistic or non-photorealistic image from a 2D or 3D model (or models in
what collectively could be called a scene file) by means of computer programs.
• In computer graphics, ray tracing is a rendering technique for generating an
image by tracing the path of light as pixels in an image plane and simulating the
effects of its encounters with virtual objects. The technique is capable of
producing a very high degree of visual realism, usually higher than that of typical
scanline rendering methods, but at a greater computational cost.
Ionization, the process in which electrons are [atoms miss e-n] and strike by rf]

• Stripped from atoms and produces electrically charged particles, results from
solar radiation.
• When radio waves strike these ionized layers, depending on frequency, some
are completely absorbed, others are refracted so that they return to the earth,
and still others pass through the ionosphere into outer space.
• The angle at which sky waves enter the ionosphere is known as the incident
angle (Figure 2-1). This is determined by wavelength and the type of
transmitting antenna

• Radio waves ionized layers electrons stripped from atoms

• Thus, the incident angle is an important factor in determining communications
range. If you need to reach a station that is relatively far from you, you would
want the incident angle to be relatively large. To communicate with a nearby
station, the incident angle should be more acquit.

In geometric optics, the angle of incidence is the angle between a ray incident on a surface and the line perpendicular to the
surface at the point of incidence, called the normal

• During the day, sky wave reflection from the F2 layer requires wavelengths short
enough to penetrate the ionized D and E layers, but not so short as to pass
through the F layer.
A solar flare is defined as a sudden, rapid, and intense variation in brightness.
A solar flare occurs when magnetic energy that has built up in the solar
atmosphere is suddenly released. Radiation is emitted across virtually the
entire electromagnetic spectrum, from radio waves at the long wavelength end,
through optical emission to x-rays and gamma rays at the short wavelength
end. The amount of energy released is the equivalent of millions of 100-
megaton hydrogen bombs exploding at the same time!
• As the magnetic energy is being released, particles, including electrons, protons,
and heavy nuclei, are heated and accelerated in the solar atmosphere. The
energy released during a flare is typically on the order of 1027 ergs per second.
• The Amplitude Modulated (AM radio) carrier frequencies are in the frequency
range 535-1605 kHz. Carrier frequencies of 540 to 1600 kHz are assigned at 10
kHz intervals. The FM radio band is from 88 to 108 MHz
• In radio jammer, purpose is to exert influence over enemy radio receivers via
jamming systems and thus weaken or totally destroy the communication ability
of the enemy.

Modulation is the process whereby the phase, amplitude, or frequency

of a carrier signal is modified to convey intelligence.
 The byte is a unit of digital information that most commonly
consists of eight bits, representing a binary number
• KB, MB, GB - A kilobyte (KB) is 1,024 bytes. A megabyte (MB) is 1,024 kilobytes. A gigabyte
(GB) is 1,024 megabytes. A terabyte (TB) is 1,024 gigabytes
• Petabyte - 1024 Terabytes
• You won't find this on any home computer! A 0 or a 1 is called a bit, 8 bits = a byte
• Gigabyte a unit of information equal to one thousand million (109) or, strictly, 230 bytes
• Petabyte a unit of information equal to one thousand million million (10/\15) or, strictly, 2/\50
bytes
 VSWR Standing waves represent power that is not accepted by
the load and reflected back along the transmission line or
feeder.

VSWR definition:
The voltage standing wave ratio, VSWR is defined as the ratio of the maximum to
minimum voltage on a loss-less line.

Electromagnetic (EM) radiation is a form of energy that is all around us and takes many forms,
such as radio waves, microwaves, X-rays and gamma rays. Sunlight is also a form of EM
energy, but visible light is only a small portion of the EM spectrum, which contains a broad range
of electromagnetic wavelengths.
• electromagnetic radiation consists of electromagnetic waves, which are
synchronized oscillations of electric and magnetic fields that propagate at the
speed of light, which, in a vacuum, is commonly denoted c. In homogeneous,
isotropic media, the oscillations of the two fields are perpendicular to each other
and perpendicular to the direction of energy and wave propagation, forming a
transverse wave.
• Antenna diversity, also known as space diversity orspatial diversity, is any one of
several wirelessdiversity schemes that uses two or more antennas to improve the
quality and reliability of a wireless link.
 ELECTRONIC CONCENTRATION Charge carrier density, also known as carrier
concentration, denotes the number of charge carriers in per volume. In SI units, it is
measured in m−3. As with any density, in principle it can depend on position.

• Sunspots: One interesting aspect of the Sun is its sunspots. Sunspots are areas where the
magnetic field is about 2,500 times stronger than Earth's, much higher than anywhere else on the
Sun. Because of the strong magnetic field, the magnetic pressure increases while the surrounding
atmospheric pressure decreases. This in turn lowers the temperature relative to its surroundings
because the concentrated magnetic field inhibits the flow of hot, new gas from the Sun's interior to
the surface.
 Sun spot best
• This is slightly brighter than the surrounding area and it is a large
radiator of cosmic rays, ultra-violet light and X-rays. In fact it results in
the overall level of radiation coming from the sun to increase. In turn this
increased radiation level from around the sunspots causes the
ionosphere to become ionised to a greater extent. This means that
higher frequencies can be reflected from the ionosphere.
• Sunspots increase and decrease through an average cycle of 11 years.
• One of the most notable occurrences on the surface of the sun is
the appearance and disappearance of dark, irregularly shaped areas
known as SUNSPOTS. Sunspots are believed to be caused by
violent eruptions on the sun and are characterized by strong magnetic
fields. These sunspots cause variations in the ionization level of
the ionosphere.
• winter is often defined by meteorologists to be the three
calendar months with the lowest average temperatures. This
corresponds to the months of December, January and February in the
Northern Hemisphere, and June, July and August in the Southern
Hemisphere.
• Power and Intensity
• Power is a measurement of amplitude over time. The RMS measurement from
the previous page is averaging the fluctuating amplitude over time, and is
therefore an excellent measurement for electrical and acoustic power (you may
see speaker or amplifier ratings in rms power in watts, meaning the continuous
amount of power they can either receive or generate).
•
• The phase of an oscillation or signal refers to a sinusoidal function
such as the following: where , , and are constant parameters called
the amplitude, frequency, and phase of the sinusoid. These signals
are periodic with period , and they are identical except for a
displacement of along the axis.

A time derivative is a derivative of a function with respect to time, usually

interpreted as the rate of change of the value of the function.[1] The
variable denoting time is usually written as t
• In mechanics and physics, simple harmonic motion is a special type of periodic
motion or oscillation where the restoring force is directly proportional to the
displacement and acts in the direction opposite to that of displacement.
• Monochromatic simply in electromagnetic radiation means, staying at a single
frequency.
• monochromatic plane waves, in which only one frequency component is
presen
Is a monochromatic, or non-monochromatic light visible at greater distance?

• Actually, that all depends on the wavelength frequency of your

monochromatic light source.
Obviously, the 1/r2

• falloff of the intensity is the same for both cases. What is more important
here is the sensitivity of the human eye to specific colors. As you can read
here, the human eye is most sensitive for light around 550nm, which is
yellowish (makes sense, since the Sun is also yellow).

• Somewhat simplified: your 1W panchromatic light source will have less

energy in the neighbourhood of the 550nm wavelength, if the 1W
monochromatic light source will be emitting closely to or on this specific
wavelength.
• Monochromatic simply in electromagnetic radiation means, staying at a
single frequency... Simple example: If your non-monochromatic light has
some colors (say red) which have longer wavelength, and your
monochromatic light is violet, then the non-monochromatic one would
reach you at greater distances.

• Angle modulation is a class of carrier modulation that is used in

telecommunications transmission systems. The class comprises frequency
modulation (FM) and phase modulation (PM), and is based on altering
the frequency or the phase, respectively, of a carrier signal to encode the
message signal.
• he instantaneous frequency is the temporal rate of the instantaneous
phase.
• Frequency deviation ( ) is used in FM radio to describe the maximum
difference between an FM modulated frequency and the nominal
carrier frequency. The term is sometimes mistakenly used as
synonymous with frequency drift, which is an unintended offset of an
oscillator from its nominal frequency.
 Sweep jamming is when a jammer's full power is shifted from one frequency to another. While this has
the advantage of being able to jam multiple frequencies in quick succession, it does not affect them
all at the same time, and thus limits the effectiveness of this type of jamming. Although, depending on the
error checking in the device(s) this can render a wide range of devices effectively useless.
Pulse jamming produces noise pulses with period depending on radar mast rotation speed thus creating blocked sectors
from directions other than the jammer making it harder to discover the jammer location.

Unlike barrage jammer, the multi tone jammer jams selected channel rather than jamming a whole band. It is higher
flexible than spot jammer as it allows a capability that more than one channel can be jammed.

√2 to get the length of the hypotenuse.

• time-invariant (TIV) system has a time-dependent system function that is not a
direct function of time. Such systems are regarded as a class of systems in the
field of system analysis. Conversely, any direct dependence on the time-domain
of the system function could be considered as a "time-varying system".

• Given a system with a time-dependent output function y ( t ) y(t)} y(t), and a

time-dependent input function x ( t ) x(t)} x(t); the system will be considered
time-invariant if a time-delay on the input x ( t + δ ) x(t+\delta )} x(t+\delta )
directly equates to a time-delay of the output y ( t + δ ) y(t+\delta )} y(t+\delta )
Frequency Shift Keying (FSK) is the digital modulation technique in which the frequency of the carrier
signal varies according to the digital signal changes. ... The binary 1s and 0s are called Mark and
Space frequencies.

Mark Frequency
the audio Frequency of AFSK modulation that corresponds to a
Digital bit of one (1)
 .
• What is an offset?
• When discussing offset, generally it is a coordinated signal system which
runs a common cycle length. Normally an offset is an integer number
(ranged from 0 up to the cycle length) and always has a reference point.
Let’s use begin of green of a coordinated phase as an example below.

• fast frequency hopping/multiple frequency shift keying (FFH/MFSK)

modulation
 The symbol rate is measured in baud (Bd) or symbols
per second.
• Baud a unit of transmission speed equal to the number of times a signal changes
state per second. For signals with only two possible states one baud is equivalent
to one bit per second.
An M-ary transmission is a type of digital modulation where instead of transmitting one bit at a time, two or more bits are
transmitted simultaneously. This type of transmission results in reduced channel bandwidth.

The voltage standing wave ratio, VSWR is defined as the ratio of the maximum to minimum voltage on a loss-less line

PSD is the quantity of power for each frequency component: therefore, PSD
integral (in frequency domain) is the total signal power.
Power spectral density is commonly expressed in watts per hertz (W/Hz).
• What does it mean to tune into a radio station?
• A tuner can also refer to a radio receiver or standalone audio
component that are part of an audio system, to be connected to a
separate amplifier. The verb tuning in radio contexts means adjusting
the radio receiver to receive the desired radio signal carrier frequency
that a particular radio station uses.
• What is meant by space diversity?
• Antenna diversity, also known as space diversity or
spatial diversity, is any one of several wireless diversity schemes
that uses two or more antennas to improve the quality and reliability
of a wireless link. ... Antenna diversity is especially effective at
mitigating these multipath situations.
Acoustics is the branch of physics that deals with the study of all
mechanical waves in gases iquids, and solids including topics such as
vibration, sound, ultrasound and infrasound.
• In contrast to a Fourier frequency, the instantaneous frequency is generally a
time-dependent frequency.
• Frequency domain analysis and Fourier transforms are a cornerstone
of signal ..... depend on whether the underlying signal is continuous-
time or discrete-time,.
• Angular frequency (ω), also known as radial or circular frequency,
measures angular displacement per unit time. Its units are therefore
degrees (or radians) per second. Angular frequency (in radians) is
larger than regular frequency (in Hz) by a factor of 2π: ω = 2πf. Hence,
1 Hz ≈ 6.28 rad/sec.
• In physics, angular frequency ω is a scalar measure of
rotation rate.
Epoch a particular period of time in history or a person's life aTh
Th hope duration
 Voltage controlled oscillator

Antenna
An antenna is a key component for wireless communications systems. It can be
defined as a device that allows the coupling of a signal, i.e. RF from a guided
medium into free space (transmitting) or from free space to a guided medium
(receiving).
A time offset is an amount of time subtracted from or added to Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) time to get the
current civil time, whether it is standard time or daylight saving time (DST).
• In signal processing, white noise is a random signal having equal
intensity at different frequencies, giving it a constant power spectral
density. ... White noise refers to a statistical model for signals and
signal sources, rather than to any specific signal.
Additive white Gaussian noise
• Additive because it is added to any noise that might be intrinsic
to the information system.
• White refers to the idea that it has uniform power across the
frequency band for the information system. It is an analogy to
the color white which has uniform emissions at all frequencies
in the visible spectrum.
• Gaussian because it has a normal distribution in the time
domain with an average time domain value of zero.
.