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27-301
Microstructure-Properties
Fracture Toughness:
how to use it, and measure it
Profs. A. D. Rollett, M. De Graef
Processing
Performance
Microstructure Properties
Last modified: 22nd Nov. ‘15
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2 Examinable
Objective
• The objective of this lecture is to build upon the basic
concepts of fracture toughness and stress intensity
introduced in part A. Realistic approaches to fracture
toughness are considered with information on how to
measure toughness.
• Modifications to the Griffith Eq. based on a) plasticity and b)
plastic zone size are explained.
• Fractography is introduced, which relates the morphology of
fracture surfaces to the fracture mode.
• Part of the motivation for this lecture is to prepare the class
for a Lab on the sensitivity of mechanical properties to
microstructure.
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3 Examinable
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5 Examinable
Toughnesses in Materials
• Before looking at the influence of microstructure on fracture
toughness, it is useful to review the range of toughnesses
observed in real materials.
• We find that to a first (crude!) approximation, toughness
scales with strength.
• An immediate refinement is to consider the bonding type in
the various classes of materials: metals tend to have simpler
structures with easier dislocation motion, i.e. more energy
absorbed in crack propagation. Ceramics have covalent or
ionic bonding with much higher resistance to dislocation
motion, especially at ambient conditions.
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Map of
Tough
toughness vs.
strength
Glass-like
brittleness
Design with
care below this
line!
[Ashby]
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The paradox: although the Griffith equation (black line) appears to be a necessary but not
sufficient condition for fracture because one also needs for the stress at the crack tip to exceed
the breaking stress (the red line), as a matter of practical experience, it does successfully
predict when fracture will actually occur.
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9 Examinable
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10 Examinable
Toughness
• Recall that we define a stress intensity as K=sc.
• Cracking is defined by K > Kc, where Kc is a critical stress intensity or
fracture toughness, and is a material property.
sbreak = Kc/(πc)
sbreak = (EGc/πc)
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11 Examinable
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12 Examinable
Plastic Zone
• The plastic zone is a simple concept to visualize. Within a certain radius of the
crack tip, rp, the yield stress is exceeded and the material
has deformed (consuming energy
thereby and contributing to
toughness). Clearly the lower
the yield strength, the larger
the plastic zone, rp. Actually the
size depends on the ratio of the applied
stress, s, to the yield stress, sy :
rp s/sy rp
[Dowling]
See supplemental slides for an eq. for the theoretical elastic stress
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Crack Tip
Different length
scales at which
to view a crack tip
[McClintock, Argon]
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14 Examinable
as
sf sbreak s0 syield
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15 Examinable
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17
Example
problem
Courtney, p. 431
Examinable
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20 Examinable
Charpy Test
• The Charpy test uses a square bar
with a small notch in it.
• The further the pendulum swings
after breaking the specimen, the
less energy was absorbed in the
impact, and vice versa.
• Higher toughness results in higher
energy absorbed.
• The test is effectively a dynamic
test because the strain rates are
much higher than in a fracture
toughness test.
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21 Examinable
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22 Examinable
Fractography
• Fractography is the practice of characterizing fracture
surfaces.
• Surface preparation is not needed - one needs to examine
the surfaces as fractured, which means that it should be
done promptly so as to avoid changes from oxidation,
corrosion etc.
• The rough, irregular nature of fracture surfaces means that
optical microscopy is of little use.
• Scanning electron microscopy is most useful in fractography.
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23 Examinable
Sample scale
• Example of high strength steel from a compact tension
test.
Dowling
Crack
propagation
Shear
Lips
Crack tip
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24 Examinable
Grain scale
• These micrographs contrast the appearance of ductile and
brittle fractures at the microstructural scale.
Dowling
Ductile (tearing)
Brittle (cleavage)
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25 Examinable
Ductile fracture
Cup and cone fracture - each
dimple is a void (which may or
may not have a particle in it) • In contrast to brittle
fracture, which is a
cleavage process
(and, in crystalline
materials typically
follows low index
planes), ductile
fracture only occurs
after much plastic
deformation.
Dieter
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Summary (part B)
• The Griffith equation has been extended to technological
materials.
• Fracture Toughness scales with modulus, as does strength.
• Fracture Toughness is highly dependent on material type: the
most important issue is the presence (toughness) or absence
(brittleness) of plasticity.
• Plasticity makes a large contribution to the energy absorbed
in crack propagation.
• Measurement methods contrasted between KIC and impact
testing (Charpy).
• Fractography introduced as a diagnostic for toughness, in
addition to the quantitative measures.
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27 Examinable
Case Study:
Failure Analysis of a Rocket Motor Case
A rocket motor case was made of a material that had a yield strength of 215 ksi (= 1485 MPa) and
a KIC of 53 ksi(in)1/2 (= 58 MPa.m3/2) and it failed at a stress of 150 ksi. Examination of the
failed component showed that there was an elliptical surface crack with a depth of 0.039
inches (= 0.99 mm) and a length of 1.72 in (= 43.7 mm). Could this flaw have been
responsible for the failure?
Answer:
The value of f(c/a) (=B) for this flaw is 1.38. Rearranging the equation that relates fracture
toughness to yield strength and operating stress, we obtain:
s fracture = K IC = K IC
1.20pc 1.20pc
Now we estimate the fracture stress iteratively by substituting values of KIC and the crack depth,
c, (not the half-length!) and assume the operating stress value, s, of 150 ksi, in order to
estimate the RHS; then we compare the value on the RHS with the known fracture stress on
the LHS. The answer turns out to be 156 ksi, which is not far off the actual fracture stress of
150 ksi. Substituting 156 ksi as the operating stress value, s, into the RHS produces 156 ksi
as the computed fracture stress. At this point the iteration has converged well enough for
our purposes. The close agreement between the actual and the computed fracture stresses
suggests that the flaw was very likely to have been the cause of the failure.
Source: Courtney: Mechanical Behavior of Materials, Ch. 9.
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References
• Materials Principles & Practice (1991), Butterworth Heinemann, Edited by
C. Newey & G. Weaver.
• G.E. Dieter (1989), Mechanical Metallurgy, McGraw-Hill, 3rd Ed.
• T.H. Courtney (2000). Mechanical Behavior of Materials. Boston, McGraw-
Hill.
• R.W. Hertzberg (1976), Deformation and Fracture Mechanics of Engineering
Materials, Wiley.
• J.F. Knott (1973), Fundamentals of Fracture Mechanics, Wiley.
• N.E. Dowling (1998), Mechanical Behavior of Materials, Prentice Hall.
• M.F. Ashby and H.J. Frost, Deformation-Mechanism Maps: The Plasticity
and Creep of Metals and Ceramics, Pergamon, ISBN 0080293379.
• D.J. Green (1998). An Introduction to the Mechanical Properties of
Ceramics, Cambridge Univ. Press, NY.
• A.H. Cottrell (1964), The Mechanical Properties of Matter, Wiley, NY.
• J.A. Collins (1981), Failure of Materials in Mechanical Design, Wiley, NY.
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Supplemental Slides
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