Database Management Systems

Introduction to Database
Systems

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 Textbook Used

Database System Concepts by Abraham

Silberschatz, 5th Edition

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 Outline

 Database Management Systems

 Data Abstraction
 Instances and Schemas
 Data Models
 Database Languages
 Database Design
 Database Architectures
 History of Database systems

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 Data base Management System?
 Database Management system is a collection of interrelated
data and a set of programs to access those data.
 Data: stored representations of meaningful objects and
events
 Structured: numbers, text, dates
 Unstructured: images, video, documents

 Collection of data is usually referred to as database

 An environment that is both convenient and efficient to use

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 Database Applications

Database are widely used. Some of its applications are:

 Banking: all transactions
 Airlines: reservations, schedules
 Universities: registration, grades
 Credit Card Transactions: Purchases on credit cards and generation of
monthly statements
 Telecommunication: Keeping record of calls made, generating monthly
bills, maintaining balances on prepaid calling, storing information about
communication networks
 Finance: Storing information about holdings, sales and purchase of
financial instruments such as stocks and bonds
 Sales: customers, products, purchases
 Online retailers: order tracking, customized recommendations
 Manufacturing: production, inventory, orders, supply chain
 Human resources: employee records, salaries, tax deductions

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 Disadvantages of File Processing
 Data Redundancy and inconsistency
 Example is address and telephone number stored in a file containing
savings and checking account records. This redundancy leads to higher
storage and access cost. Also a changed customer address is reflected
in savings account but not elsewhere in the system resulting in data
inconsistency.
 Accessing Data: Example is let us say bank officer wants to find names
of customers who live within the city’s zip code say 78733. As of here,
the software was not designed to do this job . So here the officer is left
with two choices: one is get list of all customers and extract the needed
information manually. The second choice is ask the programmer to write
the necessary application program.
 Data isolation: Data scattered in various file and files are in different
format, it is difficult to write a new program to retrieve the appropriate
data.


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 Disadvantages of File Processing
 Concurrent Access: Consider say you and your friend are holder of an
account say A which got an amount of say $2000.00. let us say both you
and friend withdraws say $500 and $200 from the account at the same
time. This results in incorrect result say 1500 or 1800 and not 1300. So to
guard against it, some form of supervision must be maintained.
 Security : In banking system, payroll personnel need see some part of
database only that has information about various bank employees. As
application programs are added in ad hoc manner, it is difficult to enforce
such security problems
 Integrity Problems: Data values stored in database must satisfy certain
type of consistency constraint. For example say bank account should not
have balance less than say $100.00. But if new constraints are to be
added, it has to be enforced in the program.

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 Duplicate Data

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 Database Management System
A software system that is used to create, maintain, and provide
controlled access to user databases

Order Filing
System

Invoicing Central database

DBMS
System
Contains employee,
order, inventory,
Payroll pricing, and
System customer data

DBMS manages data resources like an operating system manages hardware

resources
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 Advantages of the Database Approach
 Program-data independence
 Planned data redundancy
 Improved data consistency
 Improved data sharing
 Increased application development productivity
 Enforcement of standards
 Improved data quality
 Improved data accessibility and responsiveness
 Reduced program maintenance
 Improved decision support

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 Costs and Risks of the Database Approach

 New, specialized personnel

 Installation and management cost and complexity
 Conversion costs
 Need for explicit backup and recovery
 Organizational conflict

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 Components of the Database Environment

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 Architecture of DBMS

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 Overview of DBMS Components
 Stored Database and Meta-data: The stored database
resides on secondary and tertiary devices. Meta-data is
data about data. In this case the meta-data is a
description of the data components of the database.
 Storage Manager: Storage manager is nothing more than
the file system of the underlying OS. The storage
manager consists of two basic components (1) the buffer
manager, and (2) the file manager.
o File Manager: Keeps track of the location of files on the
disks and obtains the block or blocks containing a file on
request from the buffer manager.
o Buffer Manager: Handle main memory which obtains
blocks of data from disk via the file manager and choose
page of main memory to store block
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  Query Manager: Turns a query or database manipulation,
which may be expressed at a very high level (e.g., SQL)
into a sequence of request for stored data such as
specific tuples of a relation or parts of an index to a
relation.
 Transaction Manager: There are certain guarantees that a
DBMS must make when performing operations on a
database. These guarantees are often referred to as the
ACID properties.

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 Data Abstraction
 Database System is a collection of interrelated data
 Set of programmes that allow users to access and modify the data
 Purpose of database system is to provide users with an abstract
view of data
 System hides certain details of how the data are stored and
maintained.
 Three levels of data abstraction
 Physical Level :
 Lowest level of abstraction describes how data are actually stored.
 Describes complex low level data structures in detail.

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 Data Abstraction
 Logical level
 Next higher level of abstraction
 Describes what data are stored in database and what relationships exist
among those data
 View level:
 Highest Level of Abstraction
 Describes only part of the entire database.
 Application programs hide details of data types.
 Views can also hide information (such as an employee’s salary) for security
purposes.

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 Data Abstraction

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 Instances and Schemas
 Database change over time as information is inserted and deleted

 Instance :
 Collection of Information stored in the database at a particular
moment
 Analogous to a value of variable in a program

 Schema
 Overall design of the database- logical structure is called Schema.
 Corresponds to the variable declarations in a program.
 Database systems have several Schemas according to the level of
abstraction
a. Physical Schema: Database design at physical level
b. Logical Schema: Database design at logical level.
c. Subschemas: Several Schemas at view level that describe
different views of the database
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 Instances and Schemas
Data Independence: Ability to modify the Schema at one level without
affecting the schema definition at another level.
o Physical Data Independence
 Ability to modify the physical schema without causing application
programs to be rewritten.
 Modifications at physical level are necessary to improve the
performance
o Logical Data Independence
 Ability to modify the logical schema without causing application
programs to be rewritten.
 Modifications at logical level are necessary when logical structure of
database is altered.

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 Data Models
Data Models : Collection of tools for describing data, data relationships,
data semantics and data constraints
Data Models can be classified into four different categories:
 Relational Model: Collection of tables to represent both data and
relationships among those data
 Entity- Relationship Model: Collection of basic objects called entities
and relationship among these objects
 Object Oriented Data model: Object Oriented data model can be seen
as extending E-R model with notions of encapsulation, functions and
Object identity. Combines the features of object oriented data model
and relational data model
 Semi structured Data model: Specification of data where individual
data items of same type may have different set of attributes. XML is
used to represent semi structured data.

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 Database Languages
 Provides two languages- Data Definition Language(DDL)
and Data Manipulation Language (DML)
 DDL: Specify Database Schema
 DML: Express Database queries and updates.
 DDL and DML are not two separate languages
 DDL and DML form parts of single database language
such as SQL.

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 Relational Databases
 Relational database is based on two things :
a. Relational model
b. Collection of tables to represent both data and
relationships among those data.
 Includes DDL and DML
 Employs SQL Language.
 Relational data model is most widely used data model
and majority of database systems are based on relational
data model.
 A sample of relational database comprising of three
tables is shown here.

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 Relational Databases

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 Application Programs & SQL
 Sql is not as powerful as a universal tuning machine
 Some computations cannot be obtained by Sql query
 These computations must be written in a host language
like Cobol, C, C++ or Java with embedded Sql that access
the data in database
 Applications programs are ones that interact with the
database in this fashion.
 Application programs access the database in following
two ways :
 Language extensions to allow embedded SQL
 Application program interface (e.g., ODBC/JDBC) which allow SQL
queries to be sent to a database

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 Database Design
The process of designing the general structure of the
database:
 Logical Design – Deciding on the database schema. Database design
requires that we find a “good” collection of relation schemas.
 Business decision – What attributes should we record in the database?
 Computer Science decision – What relation schemas should we have
and how should the attributes be distributed among the various relation
schemas?
 Physical Design – Deciding on the physical layout of the database

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 Database Architecture
The architecture of a database systems is greatly influenced
by the underlying computer system on which the
database is running:
 Centralized
 Client-server
 Parallel (multi-processor)
 Distributed

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 Two and Three Tier- Client/Server
 In Two Tier application resides at the client machine that
invokes the database system functionality at the server
through query statements. ODBC and JDBC are used for
interaction between client and server
 In Three Tier, client machine acts as merely front end and
contains no direct database calls. Instead client end
communicates with the application server which in turn
communicates with the database system to access data.

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 Database Users
Users are differentiated by the way they expect to interact with
the system
 Application programmers – interact with system through DML calls
 Sophisticated users – form requests in a database query language
 Specialized users – write specialized database applications that do not fit
into the traditional data processing framework
 Naïve users – invoke one of the permanent application programs that have
been written previously
 Examples, people accessing database over the web, bank tellers, clerical
staff

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 Database Administrator
 Coordinates all the activities of the database system; the database
administrator has a good understanding of the enterprise’s information
resources and needs.
 Database administrator's duties include:
 Schema definition
 Storage structure and access method definition
 Schema and physical organization modification
 Granting user authority to access the database
 Specifying integrity constraints
 Acting as liaison with users
 Monitoring performance and responding to changes in requirements

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 System Structure

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 History of Database Systems
 1950s and early 1960s:
 Data processing using magnetic tapes for storage
 Tapes provide only sequential access
 Punched cards for input
 Late 1960s and 1970s:
 Hard disks allow direct access to data
 Network and hierarchical data models in widespread use
 Ted Codd defines the relational data model
 Would win the ACM Turing Award for this work
 IBM Research begins System R prototype
 UC Berkeley begins Ingres prototype
 High-performance (for the era) transaction processing

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 History of Database Systems
 1980s:
 Research relational prototypes evolve into commercial systems
 SQL becomes industrial standard
 Parallel and distributed database systems
 Object-oriented database systems
 1990s:
 Large decision support and data-mining applications
 Large multi-terabyte data warehouses
 Emergence of Web commerce

 2000s:
 XML and XQuery standards
 Automated database administration

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