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HYDRAULIC ANALYSIS

INTRODUCTION

This chapter provides:


 An overview of the core hydraulic principles that will underlie the subsequent
chapters in this volume.
 It provides background on some general hydraulic principles
TYPES OF CHANNELS

• OPEN CHANNELS
• STREAM CHANNELS
• ARTIFICIAL CHANNELS
OPEN CHANNELS
• Open channels are a natural or constructed conveyance for water whereby the
water surface is exposed to the atmosphere, and the gravity force component
in the direction of motion is the driving force.
STREAM CHANNELS
Stream channels are:
• Natural channels with their size and shape determined by natural forces.
• Compound in cross section with a main channel for conveying low flows and a
floodplain to transport flood flows.
• Shaped in cross section and plan form by the long-term history of sediment load
and water discharge over time.
ARTIFICIAL CHANNELS
Artificial channels include roadside channels, irrigation channels, storm drains and
drainage ditches, which are:
 Constructed channels with regular geometric cross sections.
 Unlined or lined with artificial or natural material to protect against erosion.
NATURAL CHANNEL FLOW (RIVER FLOW)

Rivers originate from mountains and hills, pass through valleys, plains and wetlands
and then exit to the sea. A drainage basin can simplistically be divided into three
zones:
Headwaters (an upper erosional zone of sediment production)
Transfer zone (a middle zone of sediment transport with simultaneous erosion
and deposition), and
Depositional zone (and a lower zone of sediment deposition)

The actual situation is often more complex, because local geological controls or
other factors can produce local depositional zones in the upper basin or local
erosional zones in the lower basin.
• The longitudinal profile of the river system tends to flatten through time by
degradation in the upper reaches and aggradation in the lower reaches (figure
4-2). In most natural systems this process is slow enough to be of little engineering
concern. However, where the river system or catchment has been interfered
with historically, profile flattening may proceed at noticeable rates. In some
channelization projects, response of this type has been dramatic.
HEADWATERS (MOUNTAIN TORRENTS)
• These are high-velocity river on steep slopes, often exhibiting a sequence of drops
and chutes controlled by large boulders, fallen timber, etc. They are also
commonly referred to as production zones, through the source of sediment that
they can provide for the downstream part of the river.
• Erosion and deposition are sometimes confined to severe flood events. Some
mountain torrents on very steep slopes are subject to the phenomenon of “debris
flows” or “debris torrents” whereby under severe flood conditions the bed
becomes fluid and a virtual avalanche of boulders and gravel runs down the
mountainside.
• Non-alluvial channels have highly developed meanders in solid rock valleys and
may have degrading beds. Many mountain rivers are classified as non-alluvial.
TRANSFER ZONE
• This zone is effectively a transitional zone between mountain torrents and alluvial
fans. Stream velocities decrease as the river channel slope also decreases. The
sediment sizes also decrease and meanders start to form.

DEPOSITIONAL ZONE (ALLUVIAL FANS)

• Alluvial fans generally occur where a stream emerges from a mountain valley
onto relatively flat land. They are depositional features typically characterized by
alluvial materials and unstable multiple channels subject to frequent shifts or
“avulsions.”
RIVER GEOMORPHOLOGY
• Scientists, engineers and water resource managers are faced on how to work
with rather than against nature. Engineers working on flood defense, land
drainage, channel stability and navigation interest should balance the design
with environmental and other considerations. The need to balance the needs of
different interests, sometimes conflicting, makes it essential to take a
multifunctional approach.
• Engineers seek to solve river–related problems while retaining those natural forms
and features that allow rivers to transmit the inputs of water and sediment,
support diverse habitats and provide a pleasing landscape for river centered
recreation.
• Hence, a comprehensive and reliable morphological analysis and classification
system form the essential basis to sound engineering geomorphology. The
following section gives brief geomorphological principles.
• Most alluvial channels exhibit a natural instability that results in continuous shifting
of the river through erosion and deposition, formation and destruction of islands,
development of oxbow lakes, and formation of braided channel sections.
• The degree of channel instability varies with hydrologic events, bank and bed
instability, type and extent of vegetation on the banks, sediment mobility and
floodplain use.
• Rivers have inherent dynamic qualities by which changes continually occur in the
channel position and shape. Changes may be slow or rapid, but all streams are
subjected to fluvial forces that cause changes to occur. In these streams, banks
erode, sediments are deposited, and islands and side channels form and
disappear in time.
• River mechanics involves identifying the physical characteristics and understanding
the relationship of the actions and reactions of fluvial forces tending to effect
change in channel and floodplain morphology. This knowledge enables us to
estimate the likely morphological change for river channels and floodplains as a
result of fluvial forces, which assists when planning and maintaining the built
environment. The potential effect of these dynamic systems
• On public infrastructure such as highways and bridges should be identified and
understood. A brief introduction to river geomorphology is provided in the following
sections.
STREAM TYPES
• Sinuosity provides an indicative measure of the stream type. It is measured by
the stream length divided by the valley length, as indicated in figure 4-3.
STRAIGHT STREAMS
• Straight channels are sinuous to the extent that the thalweg usually oscillates
transversely within the low flow channel, and the current is deflected from one
• Side to the other. The current oscillation usually results in the formation of pools
on the outside of bends while alternate bars, resulting from deposition, form on
the inside of the bends.
• In alluvial channels, straight stream may only be a temporary condition
particularly in sandy channel rivers that are prone to erosion/deposition of
mobile sediments. Aerial photography and topographic maps may reveal
former locations of the channel and potential directions of further movement.
BRAIDED RIVERS
• Braiding is caused by mass bank failure (slumping) as well as large quantities of
sediment load that is either deposited or remain where the stream is unable to
transport. Deposition occurs when the supply of sediment exceeds the stream’s
transport capacity. As the streambed aggrades from deposition, the
downstream channel reach develops a steeper bed slope. Multiple channels
develop on the flatter upstream slope as additional sediment is deposited within
the main channel.
• The aggraded material may be deposited within the channel to form bars that
may build over time to become islands supporting vegetation. At the flood
stage, the flow may inundate most of the bars and islands, resulting in the
complete destruction of some and reworking of others. A braided stream is
generally unpredictable and difficult to stabilize because the channel changes
alignment rapidly, is subject to continual degradation and aggradation, and is
very wide and shallow even during flooding.
MEANDERING STREAMS
• A meandering stream consists of winding channel planform with alternating s-shaped
bends (figure 4-4). In alluvial streams, the channel is subject to lateral movement
through the formation and destruction of bends (figure 4-4). Bends are formed by the
process of erosion and scouring of the banks on the outside of bends and by the
corresponding deposition of bed load on the inside of bends to form point bars. The
point bar constricts the bend and causes erosion in the bend to continue,
contributing to the lateral migration of the meandering stream
• Meandering streams can experience processes such as avulsion and meander
cutoff where the stream experiences a wholesale shift in alignment. This commonly
occurs when the channel breaks its banks in alluvial rivers with expansive
floodplains. The out of bank flows rework the floodplain and short circuit meanders,
creating oxbow lakes, or occupy secondary flow paths. After a cutoff is formed,
the stream gradient is steeper; the stream tends to adjust in response to the
increase in stream power.
• Prediction of the rate and direction of the meander movement can be difficult. A
review and comparison of historical mapping and aerial photographs can assist,
together with local knowledge and observations. Complex morphological
modeling, requiring detailed physical and hydrological data, can also be
undertaken to predict the movement.
• Meandering streams and rivers with bridge crossing present challenges as the rivers
are highly rich in mobile sediment and unpredictable channel planform. Likewise,
highway embankments which may form part of flood mitigation scheme do
present the same and similar challenges. Careful consideration is required when
works are proposed in the vicinity of type of rivers as they may be flood prone.
OPEN CHANNEL FLOW

Design analysis of both natural and artificial channels proceeds according to the
basic principles of fluid mechanics. They are namely:
• continuity,
• momentum and
• energy are applied in open channel flow.

Several important open channel flow concepts and relationship are described in the
succeeding sections
DEFINITION & BASIC PRINCIPLES
ENERGY
As shown in figure 4-5, the total energy at a given location in an open channel is
expressed as the sum of the potential energy head (elevation), pressure head,
and kinetic energy head (velocity head). The total energy at a given channel
cross section can be represented as:
• Written between an upstream cross section designated 1 and a downstream
cross section designated 2, the energy equation becomes:
STEADY AND UNSTEADY FLOW
• A steady flow is one in which the discharge passing a given cross section is
constant with respect to time. The maintenance of steady flow in any reach
requires that the rates of inflow and outflow be constant and equal. When the
discharge varies with time, the flow is unsteady.
UNIFORM FLOW AND NON-UNIFORM FLOW
• A non-uniform flow is one in which the velocity and depth vary in the direction
of motion, while they remain constant in uniform flow. Uniform flow can only
occur in a prismatic channel, which is a channel of constant cross section,
roughness and slope in the flow direction. Non-uniform flow can occur either
in a prismatic channel or in a natural channel with variable properties.
GRADUALLY VARIED AND RAPIDLY VARIED FLOW
• Gradually varied flow is a non-uniform flow in which the depth and velocity
change gradually enough in the flow direction that vertical accelerations can
be neglected. Otherwise, it is considered to be rapidly varied.
Specific energy
• Specific energy, E, is defined as the energy head relative to the channel bottom
(refer to figure 4-6). If the channel is not too steep (slope less than 10%) and the
streamlines are nearly straight and parallel (so that the hydrostatic assumption
holds), the specific energy E becomes the sum of the depth and velocity head:
CRITICAL FLOW
• Critical flow occurs when the specific energy is a minimum for a given discharge
in regular channel cross sections. The depth at which the specific energy is a
minimum is called critical depth. At critical depth, the Froude number has a
value of one. Critical depth is also the depth of maximum discharge when the
specific energy is held constant. These relationships are illustrated in figure 4-6.
During critical flow, the velocity head is equal to half the hydraulic depth. The
general expression for flow at critical depth is:
SUBCRITICAL FLOW
• Depths greater than critical depth occur in subcritical flow, and the froude number
is less than one. In this state of flow, small water surface disturbances can travel both
upstream and downstream, and the control is always located downstream.
SUPERCRITICAL FLOW
• Depths less than critical depth occur in supercritical flow, and the froude number is
greater than one. Small water surface disturbances are always swept downstream in
supercritical flow, and the location of the flow control is always upstream.
FROUDE NUMBER
The Froude number, FR, represents the ratio of inertial forces to gravitational forces
and is defined by:
Hydraulic jump
A hydraulic jump occurs as an abrupt transition from supercritical to subcritical flow in
the flow direction. There are significant changes in depth and velocity in the jump, and
energy is dissipated. For this reason, the hydraulic jump is often employed to dissipate
energy and control erosion downstream of structures such as highway culverts and
spillways. A hydraulic jump will not occur until the ratio of the flow depth (y1) in the
approach channel to the flow depth (y2) in the downstream channel reaches a
specific value that depends on the channel geometry. The depth before the jump is
called the initial depth (y1), and the depth after the jump is the sequent depth (y2).
FLOW CLASSIFICATION

The classification of open-channel flow can be summarized as follows:


 STEADY FLOW
 UNIFORM FLOW
 NON-UNIFORM FLOW
 GRADUALLY VARIED FLOW
 RAPIDLY VARIED FLOW UNSTEADY FLOW

 UNSTEADY FLOW
 Unsteady Uniform Flow (rare)
 Unsteady Non-uniform Flow -
 Gradually Varied Unsteady Flow
 Rapidly Varied Unsteady Flow
The steady, uniform flow case and the steady, non-uniform flow
case are the most fundamental types of flow treated in most
hydraulic conditions.
• STEADY UNIFORM FLOW
For a steady, uniform flow, the mean velocity, V, can be computed with
manning’s Equation:
The selection of manning’s n is generally based on observation; however, considerable
experience is essential in selecting appropriate n values. Typical ranges of n values for
various types of channels and floodplains is given in table4-2, table 4-3, table 4-4 and
table 4-5.

If the normal depth computed from manning’s equation is greater than critical depth,
the slope is classified as a mild slope while a steep slope is classified as one where the
normal depth is less than critical depth. Thus, uniform flow is subcritical on a mild slope
and supercritical on a steep slope. Strictly speaking, uniform flow conditions seldom, if
ever, occur in nature because channel sections change from point to point. For
practical purposes in most hydraulic engineering problems, however, the manning
equation can be applied to most streamflow problems by making judicious
assumptions.
Non – Uniform Flow
For the gradually varied flow condition, the depth of flow must be established
through a water surface profile analysis.

The basic principles in water surface profile analysis are where:


• Water surface approaches the uniform depth line asymptotically
• Water surface approaches the critical depth line at a finite angle
• Subcritical flow is controlled from a downstream location
• Supercritical flow is controlled from an upstream location
There are twelve (12) possible water surface profiles (see Figure 4-9) depending
on the particular flow conditions.
Methods of Analysis
Two methods of performing a water surface profile analysis are:
• The Direct Step method
• The Standard Step method
Both methods make use of the energy equation to compute the water surface
profile. The direct step method can be used to analyze straight prismatic channel
sections only. The standard step method is applicable to non-prismatic and non
straight channel alignments.
Closed Conduit Flow Calculations (Drainage Systems)
Flow conditions in a closed conduit can occur as:
• Open-channel flow - analysis of open-channel flow in a closed conduit is no different
than any other type of open-channel flow, and all the concepts and principles
discussed in Section 4.5 are applicable.
• Gravity full flow - occurs at that condition where the conduit is flowing full, but not yet
under any pressure.
• Pressure flow - occurs when the conduit is flowing full and under pressure.

Due to the additional wetted perimeter and increased friction that occurs in a gravity full
pipe, a partially full pipe will actually carry greater flow. For a circular conduit the peak
flow occurs at 93% of the height of the pipe, and the average velocity flowing one-half full
is the same as gravity full flow.
The Manning's equation combined with the continuity equation for circular section
flowing full can be rewritten as:

This equation allows for a direct computation of the required pipe diameter. Note
that the computed diameter must be increased in size to a larger nominal
dimension in order to carry the design discharge without creating pressure flow.
Energy Equation
In simple terms the energy equation states that the energy head at any cross
section must equal that in any other downstream section plus the intervening losses.
The energy head is divided into three components: the velocity head, the pressure
head and the elevation head. The energy grade line (EGL) represents the total energy
at any given cross section. The energy losses are classified as friction losses and form
losses.
The hydraulic grade line (HGL) is below the EGL by the amount of the velocity
head. In open-channel flow the HGL is equal to the water surface elevation in the
channel, while in pressure flow the HGL represents the elevation water would rise to in
a stand pipe connected to the conduit
Energy Losses
When using the energy equation all energy losses should be accounted for. Energy
losses can be classified as friction losses or form losses. Friction losses are due to forces
between the fluid and boundary material, while form losses are the result of various
hydraulic structures along the closed conduit. These structures, such as access holes,
bends, contractions, enlargements and transitions, will each cause velocity head
losses and potentially major changes in the energy grade line and hydraulic grade
line across the structure. The form losses are often called "minor losses," which is
misleading since these losses can be large relative to friction losses.
Calculating Friction Losses
Friction losses are calculated as:

Uniform flow conditions are typically assumed so that the friction slope can be
calculated from either Manning's equation, or the Darcy-Weisbach equation.
Rewriting Manning's equation for Sf: For pressure flow in circular conduit:

The Darcy-Weisbach equation for open-


channel flow:
Calculating Form Losses
Form losses occur when flow passes through structures such as access holes, junctions,
ends, contractions, enlargements and transitions. These structures can cause major
losses in both the energy grade line and the hydraulic grade line across the structure,
and if not accounted for in design, the capacity of the conduit may be restricted.
Form losses may be evaluated by several methods. The simplest method is
based on a coefficient times the velocity head, with different coefficients tabulated
for access holes, bends, inlets, etc. The general form of the equation is:
Pipe Network Analysis
Pipe network analysis involves the detailed and careful scrutiny of the fluid
flow through a hydraulic network containing several interconnected branches and
loops. In the design of a distribution system, a pipe network analysis must be done to
determine the flow rates and pressure drops in the individual sections of the network,
giving the basis for selecting pipe diameters.
The basic principles governing network hydraulics are:
• Conservation of mass – the fluid mass entering any pipe system will be equal to the
mass leaving the system. In network analysis, outflows are lumped in nodes. A
related principle is that at each junction (node), the algebraic sum of the quantities
of water entering and leaving the node is zero.
• Conservation of energy – In any closed path or circuit in a hydraulic network, the
algebraic sum of the energy (head losses) in the individual pipes is zero.

Another way of stating it is that the difference in energy (head loss) between
two nodes in a system must be the same regardless of the path that is taken (Bernoulli
principle).
Network Analysis by Conventional Method (Hardy Cross)
The most common conventional method (not using computers) that is used in
designing hydraulic networks is the Hardy Cross algorithm method. It involves iterative
trial and error.
Network Analysis by Computer Software
There are a number of pipe network analysis software (also called network simulation
software, or hydraulic network modeling software) which mathematically solve
hydraulic equations for all interconnections, branches and loops of the pipe network.
Flood Control Structures
In order to protect the populace and properties, and to reduce the extent of
overflow in the flood plain, flood control structures are planned and designed. River
channel improvement is the most common flood control scheme which aims to either
increase the carrying capacity of river, or to reduce the flood stages.
River channel improvement includes:
• Dikes - embankment built parallel to the river banks. Levees are earth embankment,
whereas floodwalls are generally concrete walls.
• Revetments - embankment protection against erosion and scouring.
• Floodway - diverts river flow from one river to another water body
• Dams/ Detention Structures – these attenuate the flood flow and reduce the peak
flow arriving to critical areas downstream in the floodplain.
• Cut-off Channel - connects the beginning and end of a meandering portion of a
stream so as to straighten the river course.
Regulating Structures
• Weirs
Weirs may be classified as broad, roof shaped, round or sharp crested. The
discharge is estimated using weir formula of Poleny as expressed as:
Sluiceways
In case a barrier is placed in a stream in which the flow takes place through a
geometrically fixed opening located under the upstream water level the flow is
analyzed by orifice formula. Once the orifice is considered as square or rectangular
section then it is known as sluiceway. The sluiceway as shown in Figure 4-16 serves to
regulate the outflow from the upstream section.
The discharge is calculated using the following equation:
Downstream Influences
Downstream influences are an important consideration in hydraulic analysis.
The influence of factors outside of the hydraulic analysis or modelling area can
change the capacity of a channel or drainage network within the study area.
Key influences from downstream of a study area include:
• Tidal effects.
• Tributary and river flow.
• Downstream structures or controls.
• Downstream tributary inflow.

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