McConnell 3e PPT Ch14

Chapter 14: The Atmosphere
1. Science and Skydiving

2. Air Evolves
3. Structure and Processes of the
Atmosphere
4. Solar Radiation and the
Atmosphere
5. The Role of Water in the
Atmosphere
6. Air Pressure, Condensation, and
Precipitation
7. Clouds and Frontal Systems
8. Winds
Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.
Science and Skydiving
• Kittinger’s descent
− August 16, 1960, Captain Joe Kittinger (USAF)
jumps from a balloon capsule 20 miles in the air
− Second highest skydive in history (Felix
Baumgartner broke the record on October 14,
2012, skydiving from a height of 24 miles)
− Researching whether astronauts could bail from
troubled spacecraft still in the atmosphere
− During his ascent, his balloon expanded, and the
sky turned black
− He was protected by a pressurized suit and an
oxygen supply
− Could see the curvature of the Earth on the
horizon
− He reached speeds of 614 mph on descent
− Rushed towards Earth for about 4 minutes,
gradually slowing as he approached its surface
(before he deployed his parachute) The Good Earth/Chapter 14: The Atmosphere
The Atmosphere Self Reflection Survey
Answer the following questions as a means of uncovering what

you already know about oceans and coastlines:
1.List the ways in which human beings

interact with the atmosphere.
The Good Earth/Chapter 14: The Atmosphere


2. Describe the variations you have observed

in the atmosphere where you live or from
your travels to other locations.


3. What characteristics of the atmosphere are

typically described in weather forecasts?

Air Evolves
Wrigley Field, Chicago, IL
Why is it easier to
hit home runs at
Coors Field?
Coors Field, Denver, CO

Air Evolves
• Our atmosphere = the air
(specific mix of gases)
around us
• Protects Earth from harmful
solar radiation, and
incoming projectiles.
• Lower bound – touches
surface of Earth
• Upper bound – gradual
transition into space
• Observed from space the
atmosphere is a thin shell
around Earth
Air Evolves
• What is the
atmosphere made
of?
− Mostly Nitrogen and
Oxygen
− CO2 is a small
component but plays
a large role in the
greenhouse effect
− Water vapor in the
air can range from
0% over deserts to
7% in humid climates
Is the atmosphere of the Earth

stable or is it changing with
time? Why? The Good Earth/Chapter 14: The Atmosphere
Air Evolves
• Having an atmosphere is not unique to Earth, but our

atmosphere’s composition is unique.
− Venus and Earth began with very similar atmospheres rich in
carbon dioxide, hydrogen, and oxygen.
− The atmospheres originated from gases expelled from extensive
volcanism and collision with comets/meteorites.
− Venus being closer to sun had abundant water vapor. This vapor
was split into hydrogen and oxygen, and hydrogen was lost to
space. Remaining oxygen bonded with carbon abundant CO2.
− CO2 blanket around Venus insulates planet867°F on the surface!

Air Evolves
Earth  No oxygen present 4 billion years ago.
- As Earth cooled, water condensed, rained, removed CO2
from the atmosphere.
- Early primitive organisms used photosynthesis to
consume CO2 and produce oxygen
- Oxygen accumulated in oceans but not atmosphere until
about 2 billion years ago (oxygen is reactive and combined
with other elements in early rocks)
Key Point: Life Came Before Free Oxygen in Earth’s
Atmosphere

Air Evolves
Earliest animals lived in

oceans. Oceans
protected them from
harmful solar radiation.
Once oxygen
accumulated in Earth’s
atmosphere, life could be
sustained on land. This is
also when the ozone
layer developed,
protecting life on land
from UV rays.

The Atmosphere Checkpoint 14.2
When would oxygen have started to

accumulate in the atmosphere if the early
Earth had fewer land masses?
a) Before 2.5 billion years ago

b) After 2.5 billion years ago
c) 2.5 billion years ago (no change)

The
Atmosphere
Checkpoint
14.3
Use the graphs to

identify which of the
times characterized by
low oxygen levels
correspond to major
extinction events.

Structure and Processes of the
Atmosphere
− Gravity holds 99% of atmospheric gases within 20 miles of the
Earth’s surface
• The density of air rapidly decreases with increasing altitude.

• The accepted boundary with space is 62 miles above Earth’s surface.
• Few gas molecules exist here.
• Some gas must extend as high as 312 miles high, as spacecraft can
feel drag up to this altitude.
• Atoms in water or air are constantly in motion = kinetic energy.
Kinetic energy increases as speed of atomic motion increases
Heat = the total kinetic energy of all the atoms in a substance
Temperature = the average kinetic energy of a substance measured for a
given quantity of the substance

Structure and Processes of the Atmosphere
The above pans of water are heated to the same temperature for the
same amount of time. They contain the same amount of heat, which is
spread among the water molecules in each pan. But the water in pan 2
has a higher temperature, as the heat would have produced more rapid
motion among fewer water molecules.
Structure and Processes of the
Atmosphere
Recall – Water has a high heat capacity!
In other words, it must absorb a lot of heat to produce a corresponding
temperature increase
The heat capacity of air is ¼ than that of water.

If the same amount of heat were applied to similar masses of air and
water, which would experience a greater temperature increase?
Air would experience a greater temperature increase, as it

doesn’t take as much heat to raise the temperature of a
given mass of air vs. water.

What is the difference between heat and
temperature?
a) Heat deals with total kinetic energy,
temperature with average kinetic energy.
b) Heat deals with average kinetic energy,

temperature with total kinetic energy.
c) There is no difference, since they both deal

with kinetic energy.

4 thermal layers of the
atmosphere
Troposphere:
Shows a decrease in
temperature with altitude.
Gets its warmth from the
Earth’s surface.
Contains our weather systems.
Air pollution collects here.
The bulk of air and aerosols
reside here.
Thickness varies based on its
thermal character. Thickest (10
miles) over equator and
thinnest (5 miles) over poles.

Stratosphere:
Shows an increase in
temperature with altitude.
Over 25 miles thick.
Contains ~20% of the
atmosphere’s air.
This is where ozone resides,
which blocks out harmful
ultraviolet solar radiation.
Temperature increase is due to
absorption of solar radiation by
ozone molecules. Higher
kinetic energy (nothing to bump
into).
The cool air of the troposphere
cannot rise into the
stratosphere.
The Atmosphere Conceptest 14.7
At extremely low temperatures the
thin polyethylene fabric (0.002 inches
thick) that made up the balloon
carrying Joe Kittinger’s capsule would
have become nearly brittle. Any small
flaws in the fabric could have caused
the balloon to spring a leak and
deflate. At what location during the
ascent would the risk of this potential
danger have been most acute?
a) Lower troposphere
b) Upper troposphere
c) Middle stratosphere
Mesosphere:
Decreasing air temperatures
that reach a minimum of
-139°F!
Temperature minimum at the
mesopause.
Temperature decreases due to
fewer and fewer ozone
molecules to absorb solar UV
radiation.
Very little oxygen and nitrogen.
Sufficient gases to burn up
incoming debris.
Most near earth objects burn
up in this layer.
Thermosphere:
Increasing air temperature up
to 1,830°F due to solar
radiation!
Blocks most of the harmful
cosmic radiation (x-rays,
gamma rays, some UV).
Very few gas molecules – heat
energy is actually low.
Gases here are ionized
(broken into constituent ions as
solar radiation strips them of
electrons).
Ionized gases cause auroras
(interaction near the magnetic
poles of electrons and protons
from the sun).
Solar Radiation and the Atmosphere
Sun emits electromagnetic radiation (EMR) which is
described by its wavelength and frequency.

The relative
proportions of solar
radiation reaching
Earth. Infrared and
visible light make up
more than 90% of
solar radiation at
Earth’s surface.
Human actions or natural

events that affect
incoming solar radiation
may affect life on Earth!

Absorption of solar energy
Highest energy
radiation is absorbed
in thermosphere.
Much of UV
absorbed in
stratosphere.

The ozone hole over Antarctica actually

represents a thinning of the ozone layer.
What are the consequences of the loss of
ozone?

What happens to EMR that reaches Earth’s surface?
• It can be scattered
- Can change direction when it hits particles and gas molecules
- This is what causes the blue color of the sky – blue light is
scattered more easily than other colors. This scattered blue light
reaches our eyes, making the sky blue!
- Higher in atmosphere, fewer gas molecules, less scattering, sky
appears black (like it did to Felix Baumgartner)
• It can be reflected
- Incoming radiation can be reflected off gas molecules and returned
to space
- Can be reflected off surface features
- Albedo = reflectivity of a surface (ice is very reflective, forests and
water are not)
• Some EMR is absorbed
- Interacts with material in atmosphere and is converted into some other
form of energy (heat).
- Atmospheric gases absorb certain wavelengths
- Thermosphere absorbs short wavelengths (x-rays, gamma rays)
- Ozone in stratosphere absorbs UV
- Water vapor and CO2 in troposphere absorb infrared
Some solar radiation

reaches Earth’s surface –
and some of this is
absorbed by land and
oceans, warming the planet
(about ½ of incoming solar
radiation heats Earth).


The Greenhouse Effect
• Surfaces on Earth with low albedo absorb solar radiation and re-
radiate it as infrared (long wavelength) radiation.
• This long wavelength infrared radiation is then absorbed by
greenhouse gases such as water vapor, carbon dioxide, and other
trace gases (methane, nitrous oxide) in the troposphere.
• This absorption causes the troposphere to warm = the greenhouse
effect!
• Keeps the Earth a livable ~33°C (91°F) warmer than if there were no
greenhouse effect.
• Average surface temperature of Earth would be ~0°F without it (as
opposed to current average of ~59°F).
• Venus, with so much CO2 in its atmosphere, has a runaway
greenhouse effect resulting in surface temperatures of up to 867°F!

Explain if the interaction of EMR with Earth would
cause global temperatures to increase or decrease
under the following conditions.
1. The atmosphere is thicker.

2. The atmosphere contains more carbon dioxide.
3. The atmosphere contains more aerosols.
4. The atmosphere contains more black soot.
5. Trees are white in color.
6. There is no ice on Earth.

The Role of Water in the Atmosphere
Water is the only substance that exists in all three states on
Earth’s surface
The atmosphere contains a small portion of the Earth’s water.

The volume of water falling as precipitation annually is 30 times greater
than the volume of water stored in atmosphere at any given time.
Water is constantly cycled through the atmosphere.
Conversion of water from one state to another transfers energy
throughout the troposphere. The Good Earth/Chapter 14: The Atmosphere
Water molecules are dipolar = opposite charges on each end of the
molecule (net partial negative charge on oxygen atom and net partial
positive charge on one hydrogen atom).
States of water are defined by the

distance between water molecules and
their degree of motion:
Solid (ice) – closely spaced, move less,
more ordered
Liquid (water) – small groups of
molecules are attached, rapid movement
creates some disorder
Gas (vapor) – individual molecules move
very rapidly, and therefore don’t attract
and join; very disordered
Changes of state are accompanied by absorption or release of heat
Latent heat = the amount of heat absorbed or released as water changes
state.
Heat is absorbed during Heat is released during

melting, evaporation, or freezing, condensation, or
sublimation (solid to gas). deposition (gas to solid).
Much more latent heat is released or absorbed during

changes between liquid and gaseous states than during
changes between solid and liquid states.

Evaporation and
condensation are
extremely
important.
They occur over
large areas.
They contribute to
weather
phenomena and
redistribution of
heat in the
atmosphere.

Your body feels cooler when you step out

of a warm shower because
a) water evaporates on your skin
b) water condenses on your skin
c) water evaporates from the surrounding air
d) water condenses in the surrounding air

Humidity = the amount of moisture in the air.
Determined by evaporation and condensation.
Hot and humid go together – higher temperatures cause evaporation
to dominate allowing more moisture in the air.
Air is saturated when it can hold no more water vapor at a given
temperature.
Absolute humidity
= mass of water (g)
in a volume of air
(m3).
Relative humidity =
amount of water
vapor in air
compared to
maximum mass of
water vapor the air
could hold if
saturated. The Good Earth/Chapter 14: The Atmosphere
Measurements reveal that a cubic meter

of air at 12°C actually holds 6 grams of
water. What happens if the temperature
of the air increases? Explain your
answer. (Refer to equation on p. 392)
a) Absolute and relative humidity both increase.
b) Absolute humidity increases and relative humidity remains
constant.
c) Absolute and relative humidity both decrease.
d) Absolute humidity remains constant and relative humidity
decreases.
When cold air moves over warm water, some of the warm water
evaporates (steam fog).
When warm air moves over cold water, the air cools.
Dew Point = temperature air must reach in order to become saturated.
Condensation occurs when the relative humidity of air increases
enough that the air becomes saturated with moisture.
Humidity can increase in two ways:

Addition of water
Decrease in temperature

1.Explain why people can see their breath

on a cold winter’s day, in terms of water
changing state and latent heat.

2. Explain why a hair dryer actually dries

your hair rather than leaving you with hot,
wet hair. Explain the process taking
place.

Air Pressure, Condensation, and
Precipitation
Atmospheric
pressure = the
pressure exerted by
the weight of an
overlying column of
air.
Air pressure
declines with
increasing altitude.
Air pressure is
influenced by air
density.
Gravity pulls most gases to Earth’s surface. Air
Air density density is therefore higher closer to Earth’s
measurement of the surface. 50% of all air lies below 3 miles
mass of atoms and altitude.
molecules of gases
per volume of air.
Precipitation
Air contracts when cooled, increasing density (molecules
occupy smaller space) and air pressure
Air expands when warmed, decreasing density (molecules
can spread out) and air pressure
Highest air pressures are found in cold regions, lowest air pressures are
found in tropical warm environments.
Air pressure decreases rapidly at lower altitudes where air density is
greatest, and decreases slowly at higher altitudes.
Which of the following images best approximates the distribution of the
two principle gases in the Earth’s atmosphere?

Precipitation
Q: Recall Joe Kittinger’s descent: His balloon expanded on

his ascent. Why?
A: The air pressure outside was decreasing

leading to an expansion of the helium inside the
balloon.

Air Pressure, Condensation, and Precipitation
• Compressed air becomes warmer, expanding air becomes cooler
− Tire pressures are typically twice that of the surrounding air.
− When you release the air, the air coming out feels colder than the
surrounding air – conversion of heat to mechanical energy = net
cooling.
− This is an adiabatic change – occurs due to a change in pressure
with no loss or gain of energy to or from the surrounding air.
Example – burn up of a meteor entering

atmosphere. Burn up is NOT a result of
frictional heating. The incoming meteor
slows down as it compresses the gases
of the upper atmosphere, causing air
temperature around the meteor to rise.

Precipitation
• Rising air cools for two reasons:
1. It is expanding and cooling due to decreasing air pressure
2. It is moving farther away from the warm surface of the earth
As a parcel of air rises, the total amount of energy present doesn’t

change, but it can be used to either maintain a constant temperature
OR to work to expand the size of the air parcel.
As the air expands – heat is distributed through a larger volume,
producing a cooling effect.
Dry adiabatic lapse rate = 10°C per 1,000 m
As rising air cools, its relative humidity increases and the air
eventually becomes saturated.
Precipitation will occur which releases latent heat. This latent heat
counterbalances adiabatic cooling which reduces the cooling rate.
Wet adiabatic lapse rate = 6°C per 1,000 m The Good Earth/Chapter 14: The Atmosphere
Precipitation
Clouds form when:
• Air rises, cools, and water
condenses, AND
• Water vapor has a surface
to condense onto
− Microscopic particles
(dust, smoke, salt,
pollutants)

Precipitation
Clouds are composed of
billions of tiny water
droplets that may
eventually combine to
form rain, snow, or hail.
Heavier cloud droplets fall and collide and combine with other droplets to
form raindrops.
One raindrop contains ~1 million cloud droplets.
Pure water droplets in high clouds can remain liquid down to -38°F.
Supercooled water will only freeze if it is agitated or has a surface to
freeze on.
Precipitation
Snow forms when:

• Clouds reach temperatures below -5°C, whereby air needs a
little less water vapor to be saturated for ice than for water.
− Condensation will preferentially produce ice crystals.
− Miniature ice crystals act as condensation surfaces.
− These ice crystals act as condensation surfaces and
gradually increase in size to form snowflakes.

Describe what would happen to a parcel of air that
begins to rise. Your answer should discuss the
normal lapse rate, dry and wet adiabatic lapse
rates, and humidity. Include a sketch showing the
parcel of air at different altitudes.

Clouds and Frontal Systems
Much of the incoming solar
radiation is either absorbed by
clouds or reflected back into
space from their surfaces.
Clouds can have both a cooling

effect (due to reflection of solar
radiation) and a warming effect
(due to absorption by water vapor,
a greenhouse gas) on the Earth’s
surface. At present, we don’t know
which effect is stronger.

“cirr” = high
level with
wispy shape
“alto” =
midlevel
“cumulus” =
heap shape
“nimbo” or
“nimbus” = rain
cloud
“stratus” =
sheet like,
cover the
whole sky
Clouds are classified on the basis of their altitude and

appearance.
Why does air rise?
• Air rises naturally if it is lighter than the surrounding air masses =
density (or convection) lifting.

Why does air rise?
• Frontal lifting = two large air masses of different densities meet. Their
boundary is a front. The lighter warm air rises above the colder denser
air.

Why does air rise?

• Orographic lifting = air is forced to
rise over an obstruction such as
mountains.
• Convergence lifting = collision of
two air masses of similar temperature
forces some air upward since both air
masses cannot occupy the same
space.

Classify the clouds in each of the following images:

The Atmosphere Checkpoint 14.22a
On July 2, 1982, truck driver Larry Walters decided to attach 45
helium-filled weather balloons to a lawn chair and go for a ride.
Lawn Chair Larry rose to an altitude of nearly 5 km (16,000 ft). The
high elevations and lack of oxygen made him dizzy, so he decided it
was time to deploy his principal altitude control device, a pellet gun.
He shot out several balloons and descended back to Earth. Which
process was most significant in Lawn Chair Larry’s balloon ride?
Explain your reasoning.
a. Density lifting
b. Orographic lifting
c. Convergence lifting
d. Frontal lifting

The Atmosphere Checkpoint 14.22b
In the following landscape, how would the amount of rainfall
change at location X if the mountain eroded down to the dashed
line?
a. Rainfall would increase.

b. Rainfall would decrease.
c. Rainfall would stay the same.
Use the information from the chapter to

explain:
1. Which air lifting mechanism dominates where you

live?
2. Which states might provide examples of the four
airlifting mechanisms?

Winds
Wind = horizontal movement of air that arises from
differences in air pressure.
Air flows from areas of high pressure to areas of low pressure.
Wind is
characterized by its
speed and direction.
Direction refers to
the direction from
which the wind
originates.
Isobar = line of
constant air pressure.
Winds
Pressure gradient =
magnitude of the change in
pressure between two points
divided by the distance
between the two points.
The greater the contrast in
pressure, the steeper the
gradient and the faster the
winds.
The closer together the
isobars, the steeper the
gradient and the faster the
winds.

Winds
• Due to the Coriolis effect, winds are deflected to the right of
their course in the Northern Hemisphere.
• Eventually, pressure gradient balances Coriolis effect and
winds move parallel to isobars (geostrophic winds).
• Winds blowing near Earth’s surface are slowed by frictional
drag from the surface.
- Friction is most dramatic over rugged surfaces.

Winds
Cyclone and anti-
cyclone.
a. Winds converge in
Anti-cyclone low pressure
systems creating a
counter clockwise
airflow at the
surface.
b. Winds diverge in
Cyclone high pressure
systems creating a
clockwise airflow at
the surface.

Winds
Wind energy
- More than 3% of
energy generated in
U.S. is wind energy
- Wind velocities must
be greater than 12
mph to make wind
turbines viable
- What are some of
the advantages of
wind energy? What
are some
The above map shows typical wind velocities across the drawbacks?
U.S. Where would the construction of wind turbines
make the most sense? The Good Earth/Chapter 14: The Atmosphere
Use the Venn diagram provided to compare and contrast the features
of atmospheric circulation and the characteristics of oceanic
circulation described in chapter 13. Write the numbers of features
unique to either group in the larger areas of circles; note features
they share in the overlap area. Identify at least 8 features.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.

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Chapter 14: The Atmosphere

1. Science and Skydiving

Answer the following questions as a means of uncovering what

1.List the ways in which human beings

The Good Earth/Chapter 14: The Atmosphere

Answer the following questions as a means of uncovering what

2. Describe the variations you have observed

The Good Earth/Chapter 14: The Atmosphere

Answer the following questions as a means of uncovering what

3. What characteristics of the atmosphere are

The Good Earth/Chapter 14: The Atmosphere

Coors Field, Denver, CO

The Good Earth/Chapter 14: The Atmosphere

Is the atmosphere of the Earth

• Having an atmosphere is not unique to Earth, but our

The Good Earth/Chapter 14: The Atmosphere

The Good Earth/Chapter 14: The Atmosphere

Earliest animals lived in

The Good Earth/Chapter 14: The Atmosphere

When would oxygen have started to

a) Before 2.5 billion years ago

The Good Earth/Chapter 14: The Atmosphere

Use the graphs to

The Good Earth/Chapter 14: The Atmosphere

• The density of air rapidly decreases with increasing altitude.

The Good Earth/Chapter 14: The Atmosphere

The heat capacity of air is ¼ than that of water.

Air would experience a greater temperature increase, as it

The Good Earth/Chapter 14: The Atmosphere

b) Heat deals with average kinetic energy,

c) There is no difference, since they both deal

The Good Earth/Chapter 14: The Atmosphere

The Good Earth/Chapter 14: The Atmosphere

The Good Earth/Chapter 14: The Atmosphere

Human actions or natural

The Good Earth/Chapter 14: The Atmosphere

The Good Earth/Chapter 14: The Atmosphere

The ozone hole over Antarctica actually

The Good Earth/Chapter 14: The Atmosphere

Some solar radiation

The Good Earth/Chapter 14: The Atmosphere

The Good Earth/Chapter 14: The Atmosphere

The Good Earth/Chapter 14: The Atmosphere

1. The atmosphere is thicker.

The Good Earth/Chapter 14: The Atmosphere

The atmosphere contains a small portion of the Earth’s water.

States of water are defined by the

Heat is absorbed during Heat is released during

Much more latent heat is released or absorbed during

The Good Earth/Chapter 14: The Atmosphere

The Good Earth/Chapter 14: The Atmosphere

Your body feels cooler when you step out

The Good Earth/Chapter 14: The Atmosphere

Measurements reveal that a cubic meter

Humidity can increase in two ways:

The Good Earth/Chapter 14: The Atmosphere

1.Explain why people can see their breath

The Good Earth/Chapter 14: The Atmosphere

2. Explain why a hair dryer actually dries

The Good Earth/Chapter 14: The Atmosphere

The Good Earth/Chapter 14: The Atmosphere

Q: Recall Joe Kittinger’s descent: His balloon expanded on

A: The air pressure outside was decreasing