Modulation

– is the process of having the

information to be transmitted alter a
higher-frequency signal for the
purpose of transmitting the
information somewhere in the
electromagnetic spectrum via radio,
wire or fiber-optic cable.
 3 Principal Types of
Electronic Communications

–Amplitude Modulation (AM)

–Frequency Modulation (FM)
–Phase Modulation (PM)
 Modulation

–the information signal, usually called the

modulating signal be it voice, video,
binary data or some other information,
is normally used to modify a higher-
frequency signal known as the carrier or
modulated wave .
 Amplitude
Modulation
– the oldest and simplest form of modulation.
– the information signal varies the amplitude
of the carrier sine wave.
– the instantaneous value of the carrier
amplitude changes in accordance with the
amplitude and frequency variations of the
modulating signal.
 Amplitude Modulation
Principles
– the carrier frequency remains constant during
the modulation process but that its amplitude
varies in accordance with the modulating
signal
– an increase in the modulating signal
amplitude causes the amplitude of the carrier
to increase.
–Time domain signals are the actual
variation of voltage over time. They are
what you would see displayed on the
screen of an oscilloscope.

–Frequency domain signals are the actual

variation of frequency over time. They
are what you would see on the screen of
a spectrum analyzer.
– High Level (Plate) Amplitude Modulation
– Overmodulation as seen at the Receiver
Envelope - the imaginary line on the
carrier waveform and is the same as the
modulating signal
Sine Wave Carrier
𝒗c = 𝑽 c 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝟐𝒇c𝒕

– In this expression, 𝒗c represents the instantaneous value

of the sine wave voltage at some specific time in the
cycle.
– The 𝑽c represents the peak value of the sine wave as
measured between zero and the maximum amplitude of
either the positive or negative-going alternations.
– The term 𝒇c is the frequency of the carrier
– 𝒕 represents some particular point in time during the ac
cycle
 Sine Wave Modulating Signal
𝒗m = 𝑽m𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟐 𝒇m𝒕

– 𝒇m is the frequency of the modulating signal.

– The modulating signal uses the peak value of the carrier
rather than zero as its reference point.
– The envelope of the modulating signal varies above and
below the peak carrier amplitude, the zero reference
line of the modulating signal coincides with the peak
value of the unmodulated carrier.
– If the amplitude of the modulating signal
is greater than the amplitude of the
carrier, distortion will occur.

– Distortion causes incorrect information

to be transmitted.

– It is important in AM that the peak value

of the modulating signal be less than the
peak value of the carrier.
– a new mathematical expression for the completed
modulated wave using the mathematical expressions
for the carrier and the modulating signal:

𝑣1 = 𝑉𝑐 + 𝑣𝑚
𝒗𝟏 = 𝑽𝒄 + 𝑽m𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟐 𝒇m𝒕

𝑣2 = 𝑣1 sin 2 𝑓𝑐𝑡
𝑣2 = (𝑉𝑐 + 𝑉𝑚 sin 2 𝑓𝑚𝑡) sin 2 𝑓𝑐𝑡
𝑽𝒄 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝟐 𝒇𝒄𝒕 + (𝑽𝒎 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝟐 𝒇𝒎𝒕) 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝟐 𝒇𝒄𝒕
carrier modulation x carrier
– The expression consists of 2 parts:
 1st part is simply the carrier waveform
 2nd part is the carrier waveform multiplied
by the modulating signal waveform.

– It is this second part of the expression that is

the characteristic of AM.

– A circuit must be able to produce

mathematical multiplication of analog signals
in order for AM to occur.
Modulator - the circuit used for producing AM, and
computes the product of the carrier and modulating
signals.
 Modulation Index and
Percentage of Modulation

– In order for proper AM to occur, the modulating signal

voltage 𝑽𝒎 must be less than the carrier voltage 𝑽𝒄.

Modulation index (m) – expresses the relationship

between the amplitudes of the modulating signal and the
carrier
- also called modulation factor, modulation
coefficient, or the degree of modulation.
- ratio of the modulating signal voltage to the carrier
voltage
 𝑽m
m=
𝑽𝒄

– The modulation index should be a number between 0 and 1.

– If the amplitude of the modulating voltage is higher than the

carrier voltage, will cause severe distortion of the
modulated wave, a condition called overmodulation.

– if the signal is of such small amplitude that it cannot be

picked up or adequately amplified by the receiver (because
of background noise and/or the strength of the carrier
frequency), it is said to be undermodulated.
 𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥 − 𝑉𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝑉𝑚 =
2
𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥 + 𝑉𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝑉𝑐 =
2
𝑽𝒎𝒂𝒙 − 𝑽𝒎𝒊𝒏
m=
𝑽𝒎𝒂𝒙 + 𝑽𝒎𝒊𝒏

– The values for Vmax and Vmin can be read

directly from an oscilloscope screen and plugged
into the formula to compute the modulation
index.
 Example:

Suppose the Vmax value read from the

graticule on the oscilloscope screen is
4.6 divisions and Vmin is 0.7 divisions.
What is the modulation index?
–Whenever the modulation index is
multiplied by 100, the degree of
modulation is expressed as a percentage.

–In practice, it is desirable to operate with

as close to 100% modulation as possible, in
this way, the maximum information signal
amplitude is transmitted.
 Sidebands and the
Frequency Domain
– Whenever a carrier is modulated by an information
signal, new signals at different frequencies called side
frequencies or sidebands are generated as part of the
process
– It occur in the frequency spectrum directly above and
below the carrier frequency.
– Sidebands occur at frequencies that are the sum and
difference of the carrier and modulating frequencies.
 fusb = 𝒇𝒄 + 𝒇𝒎
flsb = fc – fm
BW = fusb - flsb
–This sidebands take up spectrum space.

Example:
If the carrier frequency is 2.8 MHz and the
max. modulating frequency is 3 kHz, what
is the maximum and minimum sideband
frequencies? The total bandwidth?
 Amplitude Modulation
Power Distribution

– To communicate by radio, the AM signal is amplified

by a power amplifier and fed to the antenna with a
characteristic R.
– The total transmitted power divides itself between
the carrier and the upper and lower sidebands.
𝑷t = 𝑷c + 𝑷𝒖𝒔𝒃 + 𝑷lsb
– The power in the sidebands depends upon the value
of the modulation index.
– The power in each sideband is given by the
expression

𝑷𝒄(𝒎𝟐 )
𝑷t = 𝑷lsb = 𝑷𝒖𝒔𝒃 =
𝟒

Assuming 100% modulation where m = 1, the

power in each sideband is ¼ or 25% of the carrier
power. Since there are two sidebands, their
power together represents 50% of the carrier
power.
– Carrier power represents 2/3 of the total
transmitted power assuming 100%
modulation.

Example:
Assuming m=1 and carrier power is
100W and the total power is 150W, what
is the carrier power percentage? The
sideband power percentage?
The carrier itself conveys no information. It can be
transmitted and received, but unless modulation
occurs, no information will be transmitted. When
modulation occurs, sidebands are produced.

Example:
Assume a carrier power of 500 W and a
modulation of 70%? What is the power in
each sideband?
Another way to calculate the Total AM Power:

𝑷t = 𝑷𝒄(𝟏 + 𝒎𝟐 /2)

Pc – unmodulated carrier power

Example:
If the carrier power is 1200W and the %
of modulation is 90%, what is the total
power? The power in each sidebands?
To determine the total modulated current
It:
𝑰t = 𝑰c√(𝟏 + 𝒎𝟐 /2)
where:
Ic – unmodulated carrier current

Example:
If the unmodulated carrier current is 4A
and the % of modulation is 70%, what is
the total output current?
 3 Basic Ways to Calculate the Power dissipated
in the load:
𝑷 = 𝑰𝑽
𝑷 = 𝑽𝟐 /R
P = 𝑰𝟐 R
– In an AM radio transmitting station, R is the load
resistance, which is an antenna.
– To a transmitter, the antenna looks like a resistance
referred to as the characteristic resistance of the
antenna.
 Examples

1. If the unmodulated carrier current is 2.5 A in

an antenna with a characteristic resistance of
73, what is the power? If the modulated
carrier current is 3A?
2. Assume that the measured unmodulated
carrier current is 1.8 A and with modulation,
the total current is 2A, what is the % of
modulation?