FLUID MECHANICS

Dr Anju Bala
FLUID MECHANICS
Objectives:
The course will introduce
fluid mechanics and establish
its relevance in civil
engineering.
Develop the fundamental
principles underlying the
subject.
Demonstrate how these are
used for the design of simple
hydraulic components
 FLUID MECHANICS

Fluid mechanics is the study of fluids and the forces

on them. (Fluids include liquids, gases, and plasmas.)
FLUID MECHANICS
INTRODUCTION
Mechanics: The oldest physical science
that deals with both stationary and
moving bodies under the influence of
forces.
Statics: The branch of mechanics that
deals with bodies at rest.
Dynamics: The branch that deals with
bodies in motion.
Fluid mechanics: The science that deals
with the behavior of fluids at rest (fluid
statics) or in motion (fluid dynamics),
and the interaction of fluids with solids
or other fluids at the boundaries.
Fluid dynamics: Fluid mechanics is also
referred to as fluid dynamics by Fluid mechanics deals
considering fluids at rest as a special case
of motion with zero velocity. with liquids and gases in
motion or at rest.5
Hydrodynamics: The study of the motion of fluids that can be
approximated as incompressible (such as liquids, especially water,
and gases at low speeds).
Hydraulics: A subcategory of hydrodynamics, which deals with
liquid flows in pipes and open channels.
Gas dynamics: Deals with the flow of fluids that undergo
significant density changes, such as the flow of gases through
nozzles at high speeds.
Aerodynamics: Deals with the flow of gases (especially air) over
bodies such as aircraft, rockets, and automobiles at high or low
speeds.
Meteorology, oceanography, and hydrology: Deal with naturally
occurring flows.

6
What is a Fluid?
Fluid: A substance in the liquid
or gas phase.
A solid can resist an applied
shear stress by deforming.
A fluid deforms continuously
under the influence of a shear
stress, no matter how small.
In solids, stress is proportional to
strain, but in fluids, stress is
proportional to strain rate.
When a constant shear force is Deformation of a rubber block
applied, a solid eventually stops placed between two parallel plates
deforming at some fixed strain under the influence of a shear force.
angle, whereas a fluid never stops The shear stress shown is that on the
deforming and approaches a rubber—an equal but opposite shear
constant rate of strain. stress acts on the upper plate.

7
In a liquid, groups of molecules can move relative to each other, but the
volume remains relatively constant because of the strong cohesive forces
between the molecules. As a result, a liquid takes the shape of the
container it is in, and it forms a free surface in a larger container in a
gravitational field.
A gas expands until it encounters the walls of the container and fills the
entire available space. This is because the gas molecules are widely spaced,
and the cohesive forces between them are very small. Unlike liquids, a
gas in an open container cannot form a free surface.

Unlike a liquid, a gas

does not form a
free surface, and it
expands to fill the
entire available space.
8
Intermolecular bonds are strongest in solids and weakest in gases.
Solid: The molecules in a solid are arranged in a pattern that is repeated
throughout.
Liquid: In liquids molecules can rotate and translate freely.
Gas: In the gas phase, the molecules are far apart from each other, and
molecular ordering is nonexistent.

The arrangement of atoms in different phases: (a) molecules are at relatively

fixed positions in a solid, (b) groups of molecules move about each other in the
liquid phase, and (c) individual molecules move about at random in the gas
phase. 9
You have a 11:05 class, but you felt achy. You
thought of visiting the health center, maybe
all you need is a pain reliever, but who
knows...
Air forecast says it will be a sunny day.
You thought that you are lucky being far
away
from the hurricanes sweeping the coast of
the United States.
 You go out and get on your car. When you
turn the engine on, the fuel is first
pumped from the tank, mixed with the air,
and the combustion gases travel inside the
engine after ignition.

Unfortunately your plans of traveling with

Metro….should wait for few semesters.
Before your class you went to the PC lab and took a print out of your
homework.
Inkjet printing and electronics cooling also involve fluid mechanics.
After studying for Fluid Mechanics quiz you go to bed. In your dream you
found yourself in the middle of the ocean, surrounded by a farm of wind
turbines. Too much 070121306, I guess
Fluid Mechanics
Why are we studying fluid mechanics
on a Civil Engineering course?
The provision of adequate water services such as the supply of potable
water, drainage, sewerage is essential for the development of society and
for the industrial growth. It is these services which civil engineers provide.
Fluid mechanics is involved in nearly all areas of Civil Engineering either
directly or indirectly. Some examples of direct involvement are those where
we are concerned with manipulating the fluid:
Sea and river (flood) defenses;
Water distribution / sewerage (sanitation) networks;
Hydraulic design of water/sewage treatment works;
Dams;
Irrigation;
Pumps and Turbines;
Water retaining structures.
Why are we studying fluid mechanics
on a Civil Engineering course?
And some examples where the primary object is
construction - yet analysis of the fluid mechanics is
essential:
Flow of air in buildings;
Flow of air around buildings;
Bridge piers in rivers;
Ground-water flow – much larger scale in time and space.
Notice how nearly all of these involve water. The following
course, although introducing general fluid flow ideas and
principles, the course will demonstrate many of these
principles through examples where the fluid is water.
 The Hoover Dam

For a fluid at rest, pressure increases linearly with depth. As a

consequence, large forces can develop on plane and curved surfaces.
The water behind the Hoover dam, on the Colorado river, is
approximately 715 feet deep and at this depth the pressure is 310 psi.
To withstand the large pressure forces on the face of the dam, its
thickness varies from 45 feet at the top to 660 feet at the base.
Module Consists of:
Lectures & Tutorials will consists of:
Classes presenting the concepts, theory and application.
Worked examples will also be solved to demonstrate how the theory is applied.
You will be asked to do some calculations - so bring a calculator.
Assessment:
Credit points - 4
Final Exam -60 marks
CAS -40 marks
Project

Total assignments –quiz, tutorials, class assignments(for tentative dates refer

session plan)
Class Note Book/File

Lab Work: 25 Marks

Credit points-1
Timely submission of the Journal/presentations/lab-work/viva-voce/Attendance
Text Books
Fluid Mechanics & Hydraulic Machines-Dr.R.K.Bansal
Fluid Mechanics – A.K. Jain – Khanna
 Fluid Mechanics – Hydraulic & Hydraulic Mechanics -Modi & seth –
Standard Book House, Delhi
Fluid Mechanics – S. Nagrathanam – Khanna Pub., Delhi
Fluid Mechanics – Streeter-McGraw-Hill International Book Co.,
Auckland
 Elementary Fluid Mechanics – H. Rouse – Toppan C. Ltd. Tokyo
 Fluid Mechanics – Garde-Mirajgaonkar – Nemchand & Bros., Roorkee
 Fluid Mechanics – Shames - McGraw-Hill International Book Co.,
Auckland
 Fluid Mechanics – Arora
Reference Books
Fluid Mechanics with Engineering Applications by
Daugherty, Franzini & Fennimore, SI Metric Edition by
K Subramanya, McGraw Hill.
Fluid Mechanics by White, McGraw Hill.
Fluid Mechanics: Fundamentals & Applications by
Cengel, Cimbala, McGraw Hill Higher Education.
 UNIT – I
INTRODUCTION
SYLLABUS:
UNIT I :Introduction
Scope and importance of Fluid Mechanics
 Physical Properties of fluids
 density, specific weight, specific volume, sp. gravity, Viscosity-
Newton’s law of viscosity
 Newtonian and Non-Newtonian fluids.
Compressibility, Surface tension and Capillarity
Vapor pressure, Cavitations
 Ideal fluid, Real Fluid
FLUID MECHANICS
It is a branch of science that deals with the behaviour
of the fluids. (liquids or gases)
Fluids at rest –STATICS
Fluids in motion where Pressure force not considered-
KINAMATICS
Fluids in motion where Pressure force considered-
DYNAMICS
 Fluids
Statics vs Dynamics
Definition of Fluid
A fluid is a substance which deforms
continuously ,or flows; under the action of shearing
forces.
 In fact if a shear stress is acting on a fluid it will
flow and if a fluid is at rest there is no shear stress
acting on it.

Fluid Flow Shear stress – Yes

Fluid Rest Shear stress – No
Shear stress in moving fluid
If fluid is in motion, shear stress are developed if the
particles of the fluid move relative to each other. Adjacent
particles have different velocities, causing the shape of the
fluid to become distorted
On the other hand, the velocity of the fluid is the same at
every point, no shear stress will be produced, the fluid
particles are at rest relative to each other.
Moving plate Shear force

Fluid particles New particle position

Fixed surface
Introduction to Fluids
There are three states of matter: solids, liquids and gases.
Both liquids and gases are classified as fluids.
Fluids do not resist a change in shape. Therefore fluids
assume the shape of the container they occupy.
Liquids may be considered to have a fixed volume and
therefore can have a free surface. Liquids are almost
incompressible.
Conversely, gases are easily compressed and will expand to
fill a container they occupy.
 We will usually be interested in liquids, either at rest or in
motion.
Differences between liquid and gases
Liquid
Difficult to compress and often
regarded as incompressible
Occupies a fixed volume and will
take the shape of the container
A free surface is formed if the
volume of container is greater
than the liquid.
Gases
Easily to compress – changes of volume
is large, cannot normally be neglected
and are related to temperature
No fixed volume, it changes volume to
expand to fill the containing vessels
Completely fill the vessel so that no free
surface is formed.
Dimensions and Base Units
Properties of Fluids:
Quantitative measure of matter contained in a substance is
called as mass.
Unit of SI System - kg
Mass Density Typical values:
Properties of Fluids:
Specific weight
Definition: ratio of weight of fluid to its volume
Specific weight of a fluid, 
 = g
Units: N/m3
Typical values:
Water = 9810 N/m3;
Air = 11.81 N/m3
Properties of Fluids:
Specific Volume
Defined as : Volume of fluid per unit mass of fluid
Specific Volume = Volume of fluid/ mass of fluid
Specific Volume = 1/ 
Units: m3 /kg or m3 /N
It is commonly applied to the gases.
Properties of Fluids:
Specific Gravity
Ratio of the specific weight of a liquid to the specific weight
of standard fluid (water) at standard temperature and
pressure (STP)(4degree centigrade)
OR
Ratio of mass density of a liquid to the mass density of
standard fluid (water) at standard temperature and
pressure (STP)
 liquid  liquid
SG  
 water  water
Properties of Fluids:
Specific Gravity
Water = 1.0 & Mercury = 13.6
Ratio of similar quantities…..is a pure number
Has no dimension
Specific Gravity is also called as Relative Density.
If the specific gravity of fluid is known then the
density of fluid will be equal to specific gravity of fluid
multiplied by density of water.
Numerical
1. A reservoir of oil has a mass of 825 kg. The
reservoir has a volume of 0.917 m3. Compute
density, specific weight, and specific gravity of
the oil.
Solution:
mass m 825
 oil     900kg / m 3

volume  0.917

weight mg
 oil    g  900 x 9.81  8829 N / m 3
volume 

 900
SG oil  oil
  0 .9
 w @ 4C 1000
Numerical
 Calculate the specific weight, density and specific
gravity of 1 liter of a liquid which weights 7 N.
 10m³ of mercury weights 1.36 x 10⁴ N . Calculate
Specific weight , mass density , specific volume
and specific gravity.
Calculate the density ,specific weight and weight of one
liter of petrol of specific gravity 0.7
Density of a liquid is 850 Kg/m3 .Determine relative
density and weight density of the liquid. State whether
liquid will float on water or not.
Viscosity
Viscosity is defined as the property of fluid which offer
resistance to deformation – movement of one layer of
fluid over another adjacent layer of a fluid.
Viscosity -
In case of Liquids – due to cohesion
In case of Gases – due to molecular momentum
exchange
Viscosity
Viscosity
Newton’s Law Of Viscosity:
Force ‘F’ varies directly with area of contact ‘A’ and
velocity ‘U and inversely with distance ‘Y.

From similar triangles,

Newton’s Law Of Viscosity:

F/A is the shear stress and is denoted by 

This equation is called as Newton’s Law of Viscosity

= is called “ Dynamic Viscosity”

Represent Velocity Gradient or rate of Angular deformation

Newton’s Law Of Viscosity:
Unit of Viscosity :
In SI System

OR Pa . s

In CGS System

Or Poise
Newtonian and Non-Newtonian Fluid
obey refer
Fluid Newton’s law Newtonian fluids
of viscosity
Newton’s’ law of viscosity is given by; Example:
Air
du Water
 Oil
dy Gasoline
Alcohol
Kerosene
 = shear stress Benzene
 = viscosity of fluid Glycerine
du/dy = shear rate, or velocity gradient

• The viscosity  is a function only of the condition of the fluid, particularly its
temperature.
• The magnitude of the velocity gradient (du/dy) has no effect on the magnitude of .
Non-Newtonian Fluid
Do not obey

Fluid Newton’s law Non- Newtonian

of viscosity fluids

• The viscosity of the non-Newtonian fluid is dependent on the

velocity gradient as well as the condition of the fluid.

Newtonian Fluids
 a linear relationship between shear stress and the velocity gradient (rate of
shear),
 the slope is constant
 the viscosity is constant

non-Newtonian fluids
slope of the curves for non-Newtonian fluids varies
Newtonian Fluid

The rate of deformation (velocity gradient) of a

Newtonian fluid is proportional to shear stress, and the
constant of proportionality is the viscosity.
Newtonian and Non-Newtonian Fluid

If the gradient m is constant, the fluid is termed as Newtonian fluid.

Otherwise, it is known as non-Newtonian fluid. Fig. 1.5 shows
several Newtonian and non-Newtonian fluids.
Classification of Fluids According to the
Behavior of Their Viscosity
Classification of Fluids According to the
Behavior of Their Viscosity
Fluid Behavior: Newtonian
Newtonian identified
by
linear behavior
constant viscosity that
is independent of
velocity
Slope is defined as the
viscosity
Examples:
water
gasoline
most gases
Fluid Behavior: shear thinning
Shear thinning identified
by: viscosity decreases as
velocity increases
Scientists do not fully
understand what causes
this phenomenon
Examples:
ketchup
whipped cream
paint
motor oil
Fluid Behavior: shear thickening
Shear thickening identified
by: viscosity increases as
velocity increases
Due to closely packed
particles that are combined
with enough fluid to fill the
space between them
Examples:
body armor
viscous coupling unit
(traction control)
cornstarch
Fluid Behavior: Bingham plastic
Bingham plastic behaves
as a solid at low stresses,
but flows as a viscous
fluid at high stresses
Due to particles in
material having weak
bonds that can be
broken, allowing
material to flow. Yet,
when stress is gone, the
bonds form again.
Example:
toothpaste
Classification of Fluids According to the
Behavior of Their Viscosity
Variation of Viscosity with Temperature & Pressure
Kinematic Viscosity
This ratio of dynamic viscosity to mass density of fluid
is called Kinematic viscosity.
It is denoted by Greek Letter  (nu)

 = Dynamic viscosity / mass density

 =  / 

Unit = m²/s. 1m²/s = 10⁴ stokes

 SURFACE TENSION
Surface Tension is defined as the tensile force acting
on the surface of the liquid in contact with a gas or on
the surface between two immiscible liquids such that
the contact surface behaves like a membrane under
tension.
Surface tension is why liquid
drops are spherical – surfaces
tend to contract so force each
drop into the shape with least
surface area, i.e. a sphere (ball).
Best seen with small drops, since
gravity flattens larger ones.
 SURFACE TENSION
Surface of a liquid tends to contract – called surface
tension. Liquid tries to minimize surface area.

Paintbrush in But when raised,

water – hairs the surface film of
spread out, as the water contracts
they would if and pulls hairs
dry in air. together
SURFACE TENSION
 The molecule A is attracted in all directions
equally by the surrounding molecules of
the liquid. Thus the resultant force acting
on molecule A is zero.
 The molecules at the surface of this sample
of liquid water are not surrounded by other
water molecules.
 The molecule B is situated on the free
surface of the liquid ,experience a resultant
downward force . The unbalanced
attraction of molecules at the surface of a
liquid tends to pull the molecules back into Attractive forces acting on a liquid
the bulk liquid leaving the minimum molecule at the surface and deep
number of molecules on the surface. It inside the liquid.
required energy to increase the surface area
of a liquid because a larger surface area
contains more molecules in the unbalanced
situation.
Surface Tension

 Liquids possess the properties of cohesion and adhesion due to molecular attraction.
 Due to the property of cohesion, liquids can resist small tensile forces at the
interface between the liquid and air, known as surface tension, .
 Surface tension is defined as force per unit length, and its unit is N/m.
 The reason for the existence of this force arises from intermolecular attraction. In
the body of the liquid (Fig. 1.2a), a molecule is surrounded by other molecules and
intermolecular forces are symmetrical and in equilibrium.
 At the surface of the liquid (Fig. 1.2b), a molecule has this force acting only through
180.
 This imbalance forces means that the molecules at the surface tend to be drawn
together, and they act rather like a very thin membrane under tension.
 This causes a slight deformation at the surface of the liquid (the meniscus effect).

Figure 1.2: Surface Tension

SURFACE TENSION
A iron needle floats on the surface of water !!!
Iron screen resting on the surface of water
Common Water Strider
Gerris remigis
Cage holds liquids in space
 Surface tension
•Surface tension caused by molecular
attractions:
Below surface, molecule pulled by all
neighbours, all directions equally. So no net
pull.
At surface, there are no molecules above, so net
pull is downward into the liquid – leads to
minimization of surface area.
• Water – unusually high surface tension compared to common liquids.
Soap or oil floating on water tends to get pulled out into a film entire
surface, so to minimize surface area of the water.
• Surface tension depends on temperature: Cold water – larger surf. tension
than hot, since molecules don’t move as fast, so more strongly bonded.
So in hot soups, oil or fat bubbles can form spherical droplets floating on top.
When soup cools, the fat is drawn over the entire soup forming a film – “greasy
soup”. Big reason why cold soup tastes different from hot!
 SURFACE TENSION
The magnitude of this force per unit length is called surface
tension (or coefficient of surface tension) and is usually
expressed in the unit N/m.

Surface Tension – is denoted by σ . It is line force.

Droplets and Bubbles are spherical due to surface tension.

For Water – 0.0736 N/m at 20⁰C

For Mercury – 0.51 N/m at 20⁰C

Pressure intensity inside the droplet, bubble is increased as compared to outside,

due to surface tension forces acting on the surface.
Pressure Intensity inside a droplet
See Fig. 1
Let,
P – Intensity of Pressure. d – diameter of droplet
The droplet be cut into 2 halves.

1. Force acting on 1st Half – is due to intensity of pressure ‘P’

on projected area
= P• П/4 • d²

2. Force acting on 2nd Half - Surface Tension acting on

circumference
=σПd

Two forces must be equal and opposite for equilibrium.

P• П/4 • d² = σ П d

P=4σ/d
Pressure Intensity inside a bubble
See Fig. 2
Let,
P – Intensity of Pressure. d – diameter of bubble
The bubble be cut into 2 halves.

1. Force acting on 1st Half – is due to intensity of pressure ‘P’

on projected area
= P• П/4 • d²

2. Force acting on 2nd Half - Surface Tension acting on

circumference
=2σПd

Two forces must be equal and opposite for equilibrium.

P• П/4 • d² = 2 σ П d

P=8σ/d
 CAPILLARY EFFECT
 Capillary effect: The rise or fall of a liquid in a small-diameter tube inserted
into the liquid.
 Capillarity is due to cohesion and adhesion.

 adhesion between tube and liquid molecule > cohesion

Liquid wets the surface of tube - Capillary Rise
Angle of Contact - θ is less than 90⁰
Meniscus – Concave Upwards

 cohesion > adhesion between tube and liquid molecule

Liquid does not wet the surface of tube - Capillary Depression
Angle of Contact - θ is grater than 90⁰
Meniscus – Convex Upwards
Capillarity effects
CAPILLARY EFFECT

The capillary rise of water and the capillary

fall of mercury in a small-diameter glass
tube
Expression for Capillary Rise
Consider a glass tube of small diameter ‘d’ ,open at
both the ends and inserted at a liquid
The liquid will rise in the tube above the level of liquid
Let h = Height of liquid in the tube
Under Equilibrium condition,
Weight of liquid of height h is balanced by force at
surface of liquid in the tube ( Surface Tension)
 σ
Expression for Capillary Rise

W =  • V
Weight of liquid = (Area of tube × h) × ρ × g ….(1)

Vertical component of surface tensile force

= (σ П d ) × cos θ ….. Surface force = σ П d .…(2)

From (1) and (2);

h=?
Expression for Capillary Rise

h = 4 σ cos θ / ρ × g × d

 The value of θ between water and clean glass tube is approximately equal
to zero.
Cos θ =1

Then Rise of water is given by,

h=4σ/ρ×g×d

Capillary rise is inversely proportional to the radius of

the tube and density of the liquid.
Compressibility & Bulk Modulus
 All fluids are compressible under the application of an external
force and when the force is removed they expand back to their
original volume.
 The compressibility of a fluid is expressed as reciprocal of bulk
modulus of elasticity, K, which describes the variation of volume
with change of pressure, i.e.
change in pressure
K
volumetric strain
 Thus, if the pressure intensity of a volume of fluid, , is increased
by Δp and the volume is changed by Δ, then

p
K
 / 
Typical values : Water = 2.05x109 N/m2; Oil = 1.62x109 N/m2
Compressibility & Bulk Modulus
The concept of the bulk modulus is mainly applied to liquids, since for
gases the compressibility is so great that the value of K is not a constant.
The relationship between pressure and mass density is more
conveniently found from the characteristic equation of gas.
For liquids, the changes in pressure occurring in many fluid mechanics
problems are not sufficiently great to cause appreciable changes in
density. It is therefore usual to ignore such changes and consider liquids
as incompressible.
Gases may also be treated as incompressible if the pressure changes are
very small, but usually compressibility cannot be ignored. In general,
compressibility becomes important when the velocity of the fluid
exceeds about one-fifth of the velocity of a pressure wave (velocity of
sound) in the fluid.
Vapor Pressure & Cavitations
A change from liquid state to
gaseous state is known as
vaporization.
The Vaporization depends
upon prevailing pressure
and temperature condition;
occurs because of
continuous escaping of
molecules through the free
liquid surface.
Vapor Pressure & Cavitations
All liquids vaporize or evaporate due to the molecules escaping from
the free surface.
When the liquid contained in the closed vessel, the vapour molecules
get accumulated in the space between free surface and the top of the
vessel.
This accumulated vapour of the liquid exerts a partial pressure on the
liquid surface is known as vapour pressure.
If the pressure on the liquid is equal to or less than the vapour
pressure, it starts boiling or vaporize.
Higher the vapour pressure more volatile the liquid. For example
vapour pressure of petrol at20o C is 30.4 kN/m2 while that of water is
2.345 kN/m2,hencepetrol vaporizes faster than water.
As the tempreture increases the vapour pressure also increases.
Engineering significance of vapor pressure
 In a closed hydraulic system, Ex. in pipelines or pumps, water vaporizes
rapidly in regions where the pressure drops below the vapor pressure.
 There will be local boiling and a cloud of vapor bubbles will form.
 This phenomenon is known as cavitations, and can cause serious problems,
since the flow of fluid can sweep this cloud of bubbles on into an area of
higher pressure where the bubbles will collapse suddenly.
 If this should occur in contact with a solid surface, very serious damage can
result due to the very large force with which the liquid hits the surface.
 Cavitations can affect the performance of hydraulic machinery such as
pumps, turbines and propellers, and the impact of collapsing bubbles can
cause local erosion of metal surface.
 Cavitations in a closed hydraulic system can be avoided by maintaining the
pressure above the vapor pressure everywhere in the system.
 Engineering significance of vapor pressure
 There is a possibility of the liquid
pressure in liquid-flow systems
dropping below the vapor pressure
at some locations, and the resulting
unplanned vaporization.
 The vapor bubbles (called cavitation
bubbles since they form “cavities” in
the liquid) collapse as they are swept
away from the low-pressure regions,
generating highly destructive,
extremely high-pressure waves.
 This phenomenon, which is a
common cause for drop in Cavitation damage on a 16-mm by
performance and even the erosion 23-mm aluminum sample tested at
of impeller blades, is called 60 m/s for 2.5 h. The sample was
cavitation, and it is an important located at the cavity collapse region
consideration in the design of downstream of a cavity generator
hydraulic turbines and pumps. specifically designed to produce
high damage potential.
Engineering significance of vapor pressure
Summary
Unit I- summarized on the aspect below:
 Understanding of a fluid
 The differences between the behaviours of liquid and gases
 Newtonian and non-Newtonian fluid were identified
 Engineering unit of SI unit were discussed
 Fluid properties of density, specific weight, specific
gravity, viscosity and bulk modulus were outlined and taken
up.
 Surface tension
 Capillarity phenomena
 Discussion on the vapour pressure of the liquid
 Problem Solving Strategy
1. Interpret: Read carefully and determine what is given and what is to

be found/delivered. Ask if not clear. If necessary, make assumptions

and indicate them.

2. Plan: Think about major steps( or a roadmap)t hat you will take to

solve a given problem. Think of alternative /creative solutions and

choose the best one.

3. Execute: Carry out your steps. Use appropriate diagrams and

equations. Estimate your answers. Avoid simple calculation mistakes.

Revise your work.

Internal Components

PBL – 5 Marks
Class note book= 5 Marks

Class Test = 10 marks (based on four sub tests of 10

marks)

Unit Test – 10 marks

Project – 10 marks
Law locking date
Video uploading
Display in front of CE Department