Review of Signals and Systems

Gaurav S. Kasbekar
Dept. of Electrical Engineering
IIT Bombay
 Introduction
• Deterministic signal:
signal whose waveform is defined exactly as a function of time
e.g.: 𝑔 𝑡 = sin(2𝜋𝑓0 𝑡), ℎ 𝑡 = exp −𝑎𝑡 𝑢(𝑡)
• Random process:
waveform not known exactly
distribution often known
e.g.: AC voltage from wall socket measured starting from a
random instant:
o 𝑋 𝑡 = 𝑅 cos 𝜔𝑡 + Θ , where 𝑅, 𝜔 and Θ are random variables
• For now, we focus on deterministic signals
• We review “Fourier transform”
provides a link between the time-domain and frequency-domain
description
• We also study the transmission of deterministic signals
through linear time-invariant (LTI) and other systems
e.g., filters, communication channels
• Let 𝑔(𝑡): a deterministic signal Fourier Transform
• Fourier transform of 𝑔(𝑡):
∞
1) 𝐺 𝑓 = ‫׬‬−∞ 𝑔 𝑡 exp −𝑗2𝜋𝑓𝑡 𝑑𝑡
• Inverse Fourier transform:
∞
2) 𝑔 𝑡 = ‫׬‬−∞ 𝐺 𝑓 exp 𝑗2𝜋𝑓𝑡 𝑑𝑓
• Notation:
In above formulas, frequency 𝑓 is measured in Hz
𝑓 is related to angular frequency 𝜔 by 𝜔 = 2𝜋𝑓
𝜔 is measured in rad/ s
Throughout this course, we will use 𝑓 instead of 𝜔 since the
frequency content of message signals (e.g., audio, video) and
bandwidth of communication channels are usually expressed in Hz
• Shorthand: We will often use the following shorthand:
𝐺 𝑓 = 𝐹 𝑔(𝑡) for 1)
𝑔 𝑡 = 𝐹 −1 𝐺(𝑓) for 2) (note: 𝐹 . and 𝐹 −1 . are linear operators)
𝑔 𝑡 ⇌ 𝐺 𝑓 if 𝑔 𝑡 and 𝐺 𝑓 form a Fourier transform pair
 Amplitude and Phase Spectrum
• 𝐺 𝑓 is in general a complex function
• So we express it in the form:
 𝐺 𝑓 = |𝐺 𝑓 |𝑒 𝑗𝜃(𝑓) , where
 |𝐺 𝑓 | is called “amplitude spectrum” and
 𝜃(𝑓) is called “phase spectrum”
• E.g.:
• Fourier transform of 𝑔 𝑡 = 𝑒 −𝑎𝑡 𝑢(𝑡), where 𝑎 > 0:
1
 𝐺 𝑓 = 𝑎+𝑗2𝜋𝑓
• Amplitude spectrum:
1
 𝐺 𝑓 =
𝑎2 +4𝜋2 𝑓2
• Phase spectrum:
−2𝜋𝑓
 𝜃 𝑓 = tan−1 𝑎
• Fourier transform of a real-valued function 𝑔(𝑡) has the property:
 𝐺 −𝑓 = 𝐺 ∗ (𝑓)
• So amplitude and phase spectrum have the properties:
 𝐺 −𝑓 = 𝐺 𝑓
 𝜃 −𝑓 = −𝜃 𝑓
• It can be seen that these properties hold for the above example
 Examples
1) Fourier transform of 𝑔 𝑡 = 𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝑢(−𝑡), where 𝑎 > 0:
1
𝐺 𝑓 =
𝑎−𝑗2𝜋𝑓

1 1
1, − <𝑡< ,
2 2
• Let rect 𝑡 = ൞ 1
0, 𝑡 ≥ .
2
𝑡
2) Fourier transform of 𝑔 𝑡 = 𝐴rect , where 𝐴 > 0 and
𝑇
𝑇 > 0:
𝐺 𝑓 = 𝐴𝑇sinc(𝑓𝑇),
sin(𝜋𝑥)
where sinc 𝑥 =
𝜋𝑥
• Above three examples show that if a signal is narrow in
time, then it has significant content over a wide range of
frequencies and vice-versa
 Properties of Fourier Transform
1) Linearity: If 𝑔1 𝑡 ⇌ 𝐺1 𝑓 and 𝑔2 𝑡 ⇌ 𝐺2 𝑓 , then
for all constants 𝑐1 and 𝑐2 , 𝐹 𝑐1 𝑔1 𝑡 + 𝑐2 𝑔2 𝑡 :
 𝑐1 𝐺1 𝑓 + 𝑐2 𝐺2 𝑓
2) Time Scaling: If 𝑔 𝑡 ⇌ 𝐺 𝑓 , then 𝐹 𝑔(𝑎𝑡) :
1 𝑓
 𝐺
|𝑎| 𝑎
3) Duality: If 𝑔 𝑡 ⇌ 𝐺 𝑓 , then 𝐹 𝐺(𝑡) :
 𝑔 −𝑓
• Exercise: Find the Fourier transform of 𝑔 𝑡 =
𝐴sinc(2𝑊𝑡)
4) Time Shifting: If 𝑔 𝑡 ⇌ 𝐺 𝑓 , then 𝐹 𝑔(𝑡 − 𝑡0 ) :
 𝐺 𝑓 𝑒 −𝑗2𝜋𝑓𝑡0
 Properties of Fourier Transform
(contd.)
5) Frequency Shifting: If 𝑔 𝑡 ⇌ 𝐺 𝑓 , then 𝐹 −1 ሾ𝐺(𝑓 −
 Properties of Fourier Transform
(contd.)
10) Multiplication in Time Domain: If 𝑔1 𝑡 ⇌ 𝐺1 𝑓 and
𝑔2 𝑡 ⇌ 𝐺2 𝑓 , then 𝐹 𝑔1 𝑡 𝑔2 𝑡 :
 𝐺1 𝑓 ∗ 𝐺2 𝑓
11) Convolution in Time Domain: If 𝑔1 𝑡 ⇌ 𝐺1 𝑓 and
𝑔2 𝑡 ⇌ 𝐺2 𝑓 , then 𝐹 𝑔1 𝑡 ∗ 𝑔2 𝑡 :
 𝐺1 𝑓 𝐺2 𝑓
12) Rayleigh’s Energy Theorem (Parseval’s Theorem): If
∞
𝑔 𝑡 ⇌ 𝐺 𝑓 and ‫׬‬−∞ |𝑔 𝑡 |2 𝑑𝑡 < ∞, then:
∞ ∞
 ‫׬‬−∞ |𝑔
𝑡 |2 𝑑𝑡 𝑓 |2 𝑑𝑓
= ‫׬‬−∞ |𝐺
 |𝐺 𝑓 |2 known as “energy spectral density” of the signal
𝑔 𝑡
2 ∞
• Exercise: Find the value of 𝐴 ‫׬‬−∞ sinc 2 2𝑊𝑡 𝑑𝑡
 Bandwidth
• Intuitively, “bandwidth” of a signal:
 provides a measure of extent of significant spectral content of the signal for
positive frequencies
 difference between upper and lower frequencies in a continuous band of
frequencies
• When signal is strictly band-limited, easy to define its bandwidth
• E.g.:
𝑓
1) Let 𝑔(𝑡) be such that 𝐹 𝑔(𝑡) = rect
𝑊
• Bandwidth of 𝑔 𝑡 :
𝑊

2
𝑓−𝑓𝑐 −𝑓−𝑓𝑐 𝑊
2) Let ℎ(𝑡) be such that 𝐹 ℎ(𝑡) = rect + rect , where 𝑓𝑐 >
𝑊 𝑊 2
• Bandwidth of ℎ 𝑡 :
𝑊
• However, when a signal is not strictly band-limited, bandwidth can be
defined in various ways
• We study two commonly used definitions
 Null-to-null Bandwidth
• Suppose spectrum of a signal is even function of frequency with “main lobe(s)”
bounded by well-defined “nulls”
• If signal is low-pass, then bandwidth is defined as:
 half of total width of main lobe
𝑡
• E.g.: Recall that if 𝑔 𝑡 = 𝐴rect , where 𝐴 > 0 and 𝑇 > 0, then 𝐺 𝑓 =
𝑇
𝐴𝑇sinc(𝑓𝑇)
• Bandwidth of this signal:
1
 𝑇
• If signal is band-pass with main spectral lobes centred around ±𝑓𝑐 , where 𝑓𝑐 is
much larger than width of main-lobe, then bandwidth is defined as:
 width of main lobe for positive frequencies
𝑡
• E.g.: Consider the RF pulse 𝑔 𝑡 = Arect cos 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 , where 𝑓𝑐 𝑇 ≫ 1
𝑇
• 𝐺 𝑓 :
𝐴𝑇
 sinc 𝑓 − 𝑓𝑐 𝑇 + sinc((𝑓 + 𝑓𝑐 )𝑇)
2
• Bandwidth of this signal:
2
 𝑇
• Above definition of bandwidth called “null-to-null bandwidth”
• Above example shows that shifting spectral content of a low-pass signal by a
sufficiently large frequency has effect of doubling the bandwidth of the signal
 3-dB Bandwidth
• If signal is low-pass, 3-dB bandwidth defined as separation
between:
 zero frequency, where amplitude spectrum |𝐺 𝑓 | attains its peak
value and
1
 the positive frequency at which amplitude drops to of its peak
2
value
• E.g.: recall that Fourier transform of 𝑔 𝑡 = 𝑒 −𝑎𝑡 𝑢(𝑡), where
𝑎 > 0, is:
1
𝐺 𝑓 =
𝑎+𝑗2𝜋𝑓
• 3-dB bandwidth of 𝑔 𝑡 :
𝑎
 Hz
2𝜋
• If signal is band-pass, centred at ±𝑓𝑐 , then 3-dB bandwidth is
defined as separation, along positive frequency axis, between:
1
 the two frequencies at which amplitude spectrum of signal drops to
2
of its peak value at 𝑓𝑐
 Transmission of Signals Through Linear
Time-Invariant (LTI) Systems
• Filters and communication channels are often modeled as LTI systems
• Recall: if an input 𝑥(𝑡) is applied to an LTI system with impulse response
ℎ(𝑡), then its output 𝑦(𝑡) is given by:
∞
 𝑦 𝑡 = 𝑥 𝑡 ∗ ℎ 𝑡 = ‫׬‬−∞ ℎ 𝜏 𝑥 𝑡 − 𝜏 𝑑𝜏
• Fourier transform of output signal:
 𝑌 𝑓 = 𝑋 𝑓 𝐻(𝑓)
 𝐻(𝑓) called “frequency response” or “transfer function” of the LTI system
• Recall: a system is causal if it does not respond before the excitation is
applied
• Necessary and sufficient condition for an LTI system to be causal:
 ℎ 𝑡 = 0, for 𝑡 < 0
• Recall: a system is bounded input-bounded output (BIBO) stable if its output
is bounded whenever input is bounded
• Necessary and sufficient condition for an LTI system to be BIBO stable:
∞
 ‫׬‬−∞ |ℎ 𝑡 |𝑑𝑡 < ∞
 Filter
• A frequency-selective device
• Common use in communications:
To limit the spectrum of a signal to some specified band
of frequencies
• Frequency response of a filter has a “passband”
and a “stopband”
Frequencies of input inside passband are output with
little or no distortion
Frequencies of input inside stopband are blocked or
significantly attenuated
• Common types of filters:
low-pass, band-pass, high-pass, band-stop
 Example
• Transfer function of an ideal low-pass filter:
exp −𝑗2𝜋𝑓𝑡0 , −𝐵 ≤ 𝑓 ≤ 𝐵,
𝐻 𝑓 = ቊ
0, 𝑓 > 𝐵.
where 𝑡0 > 0
• Is this a causal filter?
• Impulse response:
ℎ 𝑡 = 2𝐵sinc 2𝐵(𝑡 − 𝑡0 )
• Impulse response shows that the filter is non-causal
• How can we design a causal filter that closely
approximates an ideal low-pass filter?
consider filter similar to above, with 𝑡0 large and part of
impulse response for 𝑡 < 0 truncated
 Communication Link Viewed as a
Filter: LTI Channel
• Communication channel usually acts as a filter
• First, consider a LTI channel with frequency
response 𝐻(𝑓)
• What properties must 𝐻(𝑓) satisfy so that the
input, say 𝑔(𝑡), is passed undistorted?
𝐻 𝑓 must be of the form 𝑘𝑒 −2𝜋𝑓𝑡𝑑 for some
constants 𝑘 and 𝑡𝑑 over the frequency band on which
𝑔(𝑡) has non-zero spectral content
• If 𝐻(𝑓) does not satisfy above properties, then
𝑔(𝑡) may get distorted
 Example
• Consider a channel with frequency response:
1 + 𝑘cos 2𝜋𝑓𝑇 𝑒 −𝑗2𝜋𝑡𝑑 𝑓 , 𝑓 < 𝐵,
𝐻 𝑓 = ൝
0, 𝑓 ≥ 𝐵,
 where 𝑘, 𝑡𝑑 and 𝑇 are positive constants
• A pulse, 𝑔(𝑡), which is low-pass and band-limited to 𝐵 Hz, is
applied at the input of this channel
• Output signal:
𝑘
 𝑦 𝑡 = 𝑔 𝑡 − 𝑡𝑑 + 𝑔 𝑡 − 𝑡𝑑 − 𝑇 + 𝑔 𝑡 − 𝑡𝑑 + 𝑇
2
• Thus, output consists of delayed version (by 𝑡𝑑 ) of sum of 𝑔(𝑡) and
its echoes shifted by ±𝑇
• Note that channel causes input signal 𝑔(𝑡) to spread out in time
• In digital communications, this causes “intersymbol interference”
(ISI)
 digital symbol, when passed through channel like in the above example,
spreads more widely than its allotted time
 so adjacent symbols interfere with each other, thus increasing the
probability of detection error at receiver
 Communication Link Viewed as a
Filter: Nonlinear Channel
• Several communication channels (e.g., some fiber optic
channels) are nonlinear
• E.g.: consider a channel whose output, 𝑦(𝑡), for a given
input 𝑔(𝑡) is of the form:
𝑦 𝑡 = 𝑎0 + 𝑎1 𝑔 𝑡 + 𝑎2 𝑔(𝑡)2 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑘 𝑔(𝑡)𝑘
where 𝑘 is a positive integer
• If 𝑔(𝑡) is band-limited to bandwidth 𝐵, what is
bandwidth of 𝑦(𝑡)?
𝑘𝐵
• Thus, a nonlinear channel can cause bandwidth of
transmitted signal to increase
• This can cause interference among signals using
different frequency channels
 Communication Link Viewed as a Filter:
Multipath Channel
• In wireless communication, receiver often receives:
 transmitted signal directly from transmitter
 and also several delayed versions of it reflected from objects in environment
• Such a channel called “multipath channel”
• E.g.: Consider a multipath channel with:
 a direct path and
 a second (reflected) path that is delayed by duration 𝜏 w.r.t. direct path, undergoes attenuation 𝛼 and
phase change of 𝜙 during reflection
• Impulse response of this channel may be modeled as:
 ℎ 𝑡 = 𝛿 𝑡 + 𝛼𝑒 𝑗𝜙 𝛿(𝑡 − 𝜏)
• Amplitude spectrum of this channel for 𝛼 = 0.2, 𝜙 = 𝜋 and 𝜏 = 0.2 shown in fig.
• Clearly, channel causes distortion of transmitted signal
• If bandwidth of transmitted signal is narrow (e.g.,
100 kHz wide), then:
 there is not much distortion, but only an
attenuation
 called “flat fading” channel
• However, if bandwidth of transmitted signal is wide
(e.g., 3 MHz wide), then:
 it experiences significant distortion
 called “frequency-selective” channel
Ref: “Communication Systems” by S. Haykin and M. Moher, 5th ed
 Terminology: Low-pass and Band-pass
Communication
• Recall:
low-pass signal: frequency content non-negligible only
in the range 𝑓 < 𝑊, for some 𝑊
band-pass signal: frequency content non-negligible only
in bands of frequencies of total extent 2𝑊 each
centered around 𝑓𝑐 and −𝑓𝑐 , where 𝑓𝑐 known as “carrier
frequency”
o typically 𝑓𝑐 ≫ 2𝑊: if this holds, signal referred to as “narrow-
band signal”
• Communication using low-pass (respectively, band-
pass) signals known as “baseband communication”
(respectively, “band-pass communication”)
• Recall: most communication is band-pass
 Example
• First fig shows
amplitude spectrum of
a band-pass signal
• Second fig shows the
signal in time-domain
• Note: signal is
sinusoidal with:
approx. freq. 𝑓𝑐 and
a time-varying
amplitude

Ref: “Communication Systems” by S.

Haykin and M. Moher, 5th ed
 Representation of Band-pass Signals
• A band-pass signal 𝑔(𝑡) with non-zero frequency content in
narrow bands centred around ±𝑓𝑐 can be expressed as:
1) 𝑔 𝑡 = 𝑎 𝑡 cos 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 + 𝜙(𝑡)
where 𝑎 𝑡 (respectively, 𝜙(𝑡)) referred to as “envelope”
(respectively, “phase”) of the signal
• Envelope 𝑎 𝑡 defined to be non-negative
• So at points where envelope is about to cross zero:
phase 𝜙(𝑡) is adjusted by 180° to keep envelope non-negative
• The term 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 makes direct analysis of band-pass
communication systems tedious
• So we will develop a representation of band-pass signals, in
which the term 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 is suppressed
called “complex baseband representation”
 Representation of Band-pass Signals
(contd.)
• Recall: a band-pass signal 𝑔(𝑡) can be expressed as:
1) 𝑔 𝑡 = 𝑎 𝑡 cos 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 + 𝜙(𝑡)
• We can rewrite 1) as:
2) 𝑔 𝑡 = 𝑔𝐼 𝑡 cos 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 − 𝑔𝑄 𝑡 sin 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡
where 𝑔𝐼 𝑡 = 𝑎 𝑡 cos(𝜙 𝑡 ) and 𝑔𝑄 𝑡 = 𝑎 𝑡 sin(𝜙 𝑡 )
• 𝑔𝐼 𝑡 (respectively, 𝑔𝑄 𝑡 ) called the in-phase
(respectively, quadrature) component of 𝑔 𝑡
• To recover the representation 1) from 2), we use:
𝑎 𝑡 = 𝑔𝐼2 𝑡 + 𝑔𝑄2 𝑡 and
−1 𝑔𝑄 𝑡
𝜙 𝑡 = tan
𝑔𝐼 𝑡
 Complex Baseband Representation
• Recall above representation:
 𝑔 𝑡 = 𝑔𝐼 𝑡 cos 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 − 𝑔𝑄 𝑡 sin 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡
 where 𝑔𝐼 𝑡 = 𝑎 𝑡 cos(𝜙 𝑡 ) and 𝑔𝑄 𝑡 = 𝑎 𝑡 sin(𝜙 𝑡 )
• This can be written as:
1) 𝑔 𝑡 = Re 𝑔෤ 𝑡 exp(𝑗2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡) ,
 where 𝑔෤ 𝑡 = 𝑔𝐼 𝑡 + 𝑗𝑔𝑄 𝑡
• 𝑔෤ 𝑡 referred to as “complex envelope” of the band-pass signal
• Information content of the signal 𝑔 𝑡 is completely represented
by the complex envelope 𝑔෤ 𝑡
• 1) can be written as:
1
2) 𝑔 𝑡 = 2 𝑔෤ 𝑡 exp 𝑗2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 + 𝑔෤ ∗ 𝑡 exp(−𝑗2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡)
• By 2), the Fourier transform of 𝑔 𝑡 can be written as:
1
3) 𝐺 𝑓 = 𝐺෨ 𝑓 − 𝑓𝑐 + 𝐺෨ ∗ −𝑓 − 𝑓𝑐
2
• In what frequency band is 𝐺෨ 𝑓 non-zero?
 since 𝑔 𝑡 is a band-pass signal centered around ±𝑓𝑐 , 3) shows that
𝐺෨ 𝑓 is the Fourier transform of a low-pass signal
 Complex Baseband
Representation (contd.)
• Recall:
1
 𝐺 𝑓 = 𝐺෨ 𝑓 − 𝑓𝑐 + 𝐺෨ ∗ −𝑓 − 𝑓𝑐
2
1) 𝑔෤ 𝑡 = 𝑔𝐼 𝑡 + 𝑗𝑔𝑄 𝑡
 where 𝑔𝐼 𝑡 = 𝑎 𝑡 cos(𝜙 𝑡 ) and
𝑔𝑄 𝑡 = 𝑎 𝑡 sin(𝜙 𝑡 )
2) 𝑔෤ 𝑡 is a low-pass signal
• In what frequency band are the
spectrum of 𝑔𝐼 𝑡 and 𝑔𝑄 𝑡 non-
zero?
 by 1) and 2), they are low-pass
signals
• Also, since 𝑔 𝑡 , 𝑔𝐼 𝑡 and 𝑔𝑄 𝑡
are real-valued, their Fourier
transforms are even functions
• Note: Fourier transform of 𝑔 𝑡 not
guaranteed to be symmetric about
𝑓𝑐 Ref: “Communication Systems” by S. Haykin and
M. Moher, 5 ed th
 Complex Baseband Representation:
Summary
• Information content of the band-pass signal
𝑔 𝑡 is completely contained in the complex
envelope 𝑔෤ 𝑡 , which is a low-pass signal
• The term 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 is suppressed, which simplifies
analysis of band-pass communication systems
 Example
• Want to find complex envelope of the RF pulse 𝑔 𝑡 =
𝑡
Arect cos 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡
𝑇
where 𝑓𝑐 𝑇 ≫ 1
• Comparing with:
𝑔 𝑡 = 𝑔𝐼 𝑡 cos 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 − 𝑔𝑄 𝑡 sin 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 ,
we get:
𝑡
𝑔𝐼 𝑡 = Arect and 𝑔𝑄 𝑡 = 0
𝑇
• Complex envelope:
𝑡
𝑔෤ 𝑡 = 𝑔𝐼 𝑡 + 𝑗𝑔𝑄 𝑡 = Arect
𝑇
• So in this example, complex envelope is real-valued
and has same value as envelope
 Transmission of Band-pass Signal Through
• Let
Band-pass Filter
 𝑥(𝑡) be a band-pass signal with non-zero spectral content in narrow bands
around ±𝑓𝑐
 ℎ(𝑡) be the impulse response of an LTI band-pass filter with mid-band
frequency 𝑓𝑐
• Let 𝑦(𝑡) be the output when 𝑥(𝑡) is input to the above band-pass filter
• 𝑦 𝑡 in terms of 𝑥(𝑡) and ℎ(𝑡):
1) 𝑦 𝑡 = 𝑥 𝑡 ∗ ℎ(𝑡)
• However, direct computation of 𝑦 𝑡 using 1) or using 𝑌 𝑓 = 𝑋 𝑓 𝐻(𝑓)
often tedious:
 due to presence of the terms cos 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 and sin 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡
• E.g.: Let
𝑡
 𝑥 𝑡 = Arect cos 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡
𝑇
 ℎ(𝑡) be an ideal band-pass filter with mid-band frequency 𝑓𝑐 and bandwidth of
pass-band equal to 2𝐵
 Want to compute output when 𝑥(𝑡) is input to the band-pass filter
 tedious to directly compute
• We will study an alternative technique that uses complex baseband
representations of input, impulse response of band-pass system and output
 Transmission of Band-pass Signal
Through Band-pass Filter (contd.)
• Suppose ℎ(𝑡) is impulse response of an LTI band-pass filter with mid-band
frequency 𝑓𝑐
• What kind of signal is ℎ(𝑡)?
 band-pass signal with non-zero spectral content in narrow bands around ±𝑓𝑐
• Hence, similar to above discussion on complex baseband representation of band-
pass signals, we can write:
1) ℎ 𝑡 = Re ℎ෨ 𝑡 exp(𝑗2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡) ,
 where ℎ෨ 𝑡 = ℎ𝐼 𝑡 + 𝑗ℎ𝑄 𝑡 is called “complex impulse response” of bandpass filter
1
2) ℎ 𝑡 = ℎ෨ 𝑡 exp 𝑗2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 + ℎ෨ ∗ 𝑡 exp(−𝑗2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡)
2
and:
1
3) ෩ 𝑓 − 𝑓𝑐 + 𝐻
𝐻 𝑓 =2 𝐻 ෩ ∗ −𝑓 − 𝑓𝑐
• Let 𝑦(𝑡) be output when a band-pass signal (with mid-band frequency 𝑓𝑐 ) 𝑥(𝑡)
is input to above band-pass filter
• What kind of signal is 𝑦(𝑡)?
 band-pass with mid-band frequency 𝑓𝑐
• So we can write:
 𝑦 𝑡 = Re 𝑦෤ 𝑡 exp(𝑗2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡)
 Transmission of Band-pass Signal
Through Band-pass Filter (contd.)
• 𝑌 𝑓 in terms of 𝑋 𝑓 and 𝐻 𝑓 :
 𝑌 𝑓 =𝐻 𝑓 𝑋 𝑓
• Using complex baseband representations:
1 1
 𝑌 𝑓 = ෩ 𝑓 − 𝑓𝑐 + 𝐻
𝐻 ෩ ∗ −𝑓 − 𝑓𝑐 × 𝑋෨ 𝑓 − 𝑓𝑐 + 𝑋෨ ∗ −𝑓 − 𝑓𝑐
2 2
• Simplifying, we get:
1
1) 𝑌 𝑓 = 𝑌෨ 𝑓 − 𝑓𝑐 + 𝑌෨ ∗ −𝑓 − 𝑓𝑐
2
where:
1
2) 𝑌෨ 𝑓 = 𝐻෩ 𝑓 𝑋෨ 𝑓
2
• Taking inverse Fourier transform on both sides of 2), we get:
1
3) 𝑦෤ 𝑡 = ℎ෨ 𝑡 ∗ 𝑥෤ 𝑡
2
• 3) shows that complex envelope of band-pass filter output is convolution of complex
1
envelopes of filter and input, scaled by the factor 2
• Output can be computed from its complex envelope using:
 𝑦 𝑡 = Re 𝑦෤ 𝑡 exp(𝑗2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡)
• So while dealing with band-pass signals and systems, we need only concern ourselves
with the low-pass functions 𝑥෤ 𝑡 , 𝑦෤ 𝑡 and ℎ෨ 𝑡
• Analysis of band-pass filtering process simplified since the the terms cos 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 and
sin 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 do not appear in the analysis
 Transmission of Band-pass Signal
Through Band-pass Filter: Summary
1) Input band-pass signal 𝑥 𝑡 replaced by its complex
envelope 𝑥෤ 𝑡 using:
 𝑥 𝑡 = Re 𝑥෤ 𝑡 exp(𝑗2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡)
2) Band-pass system with impulse response ℎ(𝑡)
replaced by a low-pass equivalent, characterized by a
complex impulse response ℎ෨ 𝑡 , related to ℎ(𝑡) by:
 ℎ 𝑡 = Re ℎ෨ 𝑡 exp(𝑗2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡)
3) Complex envelope of output obtained by convolving
complex envelope of input with complex impulse
response of band-pass system:
1
 𝑦෤ 𝑡 = ℎ෨ 𝑡 ∗ 𝑥෤ 𝑡
2
4) Output computed from its complex envelope using:
𝑦 𝑡 = Re 𝑦෤ 𝑡 exp(𝑗2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡)
 Example
෩ 𝑓 :
• 𝐻
• Consider an ideal band-pass filter:
 with mid-band frequency 𝑓𝑐 2, −𝐵 < 𝑓 < 𝐵,
ቊ
 amplitude response limited to 0, 𝑓 >𝐵
𝑓𝑐 − 𝐵 ≤ 𝑓 ≤ 𝑓𝑐 + 𝐵 • So ℎ෨ 𝑡 :
 phase response 0 for all  4𝐵sinc(2𝐵𝑡)
frequencies
• Complex envelope of output:
• Want to compute response of 1
above filter to following RF pulse:  𝑦෤ 𝑡 = ℎ෨ 𝑡 ∗ 𝑥෤ 𝑡
2
𝑡 𝑇/2
 𝑥 𝑡 = Arect cos 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡  𝑦෤ 𝑡 = 2𝐴𝐵 ‫׬‬−𝑇/2 sinc൫2𝐵(𝑡 −
𝑇
 where 𝑓𝑐 𝑇 ≫ 1
• Recall: complex envelope of input
RF pulse:
𝑡
 𝑥෤ 𝑡 = Arect
𝑇
• Want complex impulse response
• Recall:
1
෩ 𝑓 − 𝑓𝑐 +
 𝐻 𝑓 = ൣ𝐻
2
• E.g. of sources of information:
Sources of Information
 speech, music, video, text and pdf files
• Some sources (e.g., speech) generate an analog signal 𝑚(𝑡)
 either directly used for modulating a carrier signal or
 sampled, quantized and converted into a sequence of bits
• Some sources (e.g., a text file) generate a sequence of bits, say 𝑏1 , … , 𝑏𝑇
• Can be represented by a sequence of pulses:
 𝑔 𝑡 = σ𝐾 𝑘=1 𝑏𝑘 𝑝(𝑡 − 𝑘𝑇)
 where 𝑝(𝑡) is a pulse, which may be rectangular or a different shape
 pulse shape chosen to limit bandwidth of transmitted signal, reduce inter-symbol
interference etc

• The function 𝑔 𝑡 is an analog waveform,

although it represents a bit sequence
• Hence, any modulation technique that can be
used to modulate an analog message signal
𝑚(𝑡) can also be used to modulate a signal
𝑔 𝑡 that represents a bit sequence

Ref: “Communication Systems” by S.

Haykin and M. Moher, 5th ed