Cell Biology

Dr. Mohammad Sakran Ayasrah

 The Cell
• Cell exist
• different shapes
• Smooth vs
stratified
• Columned
• different functions
• Move, grow repair,
metabolism,
energy
• Location
• Free
• fixed
 Cell chemical composition
• Protoplasm
(cystoplasm+necleoplasm)
– Function
• Metabolism
– Protein synthesis
– Energy production
• Food & oxygen processing
• Waste elimination
– Composition
• Organic
– Elements:O2, H2, C, N3, P,S
– Compounds: protein, carb,, fat,
nucleic acid
• Inorganic (water)
– Dissolved
– suspended
 Organic Compounds
• Protein (15%)
– Importance
• Growth
• Construction of new tissues
• Repair General Structure of an
– Composition Amino Acid

• Chain of amino acid (22)

– Peptide bond
– Protein synthesis
» Control by chromosome & genes to
form
» Structural protein
» Enzymatic protein A Peptide Bond
 enzymes
• Function
– Control the rate of
chemical reaction
(catalysts)
– Control the cell
– physiologic cell activities
– Repair
• Ribosome
• radiotherapy
 Hormones & antibodies
• Hormones
– Protein to control the function of organs such as
growth & development
– Antibodies : protein to protect the body for F.B
mad by B-lymphocytes in bone marrow
– Body immune reaction (WBC)
– T- lymphocytes activate when there is an antigens
 Carbohydrates
• Saccharides (1%) (starch and sugars) (C-O-H)
• small molecules :Simple
• (Monosaccharides & diasaccharides)
– Sugar (6C &6H2O)
• Glucose
• Fructose
• Galactose
– Source of energy (short term)
• Poly saccharides
– Starch and & glycogen
 Lipids
• Fat (2%)
• Glycerin and fatty acid
• Macro- molecules
• Functions
– Long –term energy storage
– supportive
Glycerol 3 Fatty Acids Fat
– Protective (where R represents where R, R' & R"
a long C-C-C chain) may or may not
triglyceride) be the sam
 Nucleic Acid

sugar phosphate sugar phosphate ...

• Large molecules (1%)

• Small one nucleic acid (nucleotide)
• Sugar, phosphate
• Deoxyribonucleic acid DNA & Ribonucleic acid
 DNA
A T G C
sugar phosphate sugar phosphate sugar phosphate sugar ...

• Genetic information
storage
• Two long sugar phosphate
chain, twist ladder
• adenine (A), cytosine (C),
guanine (G), and thymine
(T).
• AG - purine
• CT  pyrimidines
 DNA
• Master chemical: master of cell functions by
protein synthesis
• Genetic information to replicate
• Human characteristics
 A U
RNA G C
sugar sugar sugar sugar
phosphate phosphate phosphate

• MRNA regulate cell activities outside

nucleus
• Like DNA, RNA has a sugar-phosphate
backbone with nucleotide bases
attached to it.
• Like DNA, RNA contains the bases
adenine (A), cytosine (C), and guanine
(G);
• RNA does not contain thymine, instead,
RNA's fourth nucleotide is the base
uracil (U).
• RNA is a single-stranded molecule
 RNA
• tRNA. Attach with
ribosome for protein
synthesis
 Human Genome
• The genetic material in
the DNA of the
chromosomes of
human being
• 2.9 B. base pair
arranged in 30,000
genes to produce at
least 90,000 proteins
 Inorganic compounds
• Base: MgOH2
• Acid: HNO3
• Salts: Na, K
• Water 80-85%
 Physical component cell
• Membrane
• Cytoplasm
• Cystoplasmic
organelles
 Cell membrane
• Semi permeable
• Protective,
• Transport
– Osmosis passive no
energy
– Active : needs energy
 cytoplasm
• Protoplasm outside
nucleus
• Constituents
– Water
– Carb, protein, fat, minerals
• Most function of the cell
 Organelles
Endoplasmic reticulum
• Irregular, tubules,
vesicles network
• Highway system
• Smooth and rough
 Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)

Granular (rough) ER: •

Bears ribosomes on –
surface, in cells active in
protein synthesis.
Proteins enter cisternae •
are modified for secretion.
Agranular (smooth) ER: •
Provides site for enzyme –
reactions in steroid
hormone production and
inactivation.
Storage of Ca2+ in striated –
muscle cells.
 Golgi complex
• Runs from cell
membrane to nucleus
• Glycoprotein
production for
enzymes and hormone
production
 Golgi Complex

Stacks of hollow, flattened sacks •

with cisternae.
One side of sack faces site for –
entry of vesicles from ER that
contain cellular products.
Other site faces towards plasma –
membrane and releases vesicles
of chemically modified
products.
Modifies proteins, separates •
according to destination, and
packages into vesicles.
 Mitochondria
• Double membrane, bean
shape,
• Power house
• ATP for active transport
• 200-3000 ones
 Mitochondria

Sites for energy production •

of all cells; but mature
RBCs.
Contain own DNA, can •
reproduce themselves.
Structure: •
Outer membrane: smooth. –
Inner membrane: cristae. –
Cristae and matrix –
compartmentalize
mitochondrion space.
Have different roles in •
energy generation.
 lysosomes
• Small sac body
• For digestion by
enzyems
• Garbage disposal
• Suicide bags
 Lysosomes
– Primary:
• Contain only digestive enzymes.
– Secondary:
• Primary lysosome fuses with food vacuole or organelle.
– Contain partially digested remnants of other organelles and organic
material.
– Residual body:
• Contain undigested wastes.
– Autophagy:
• Process that destroys worn-out organelles, so that they can be
continuously replaced.
– Apoptosis (programmed cell death):
Lysosomes release digestive enzymes into the cell. •
 Ribosomes
• Small spherical attached to ER
• 2/3 RNA &1/3protein
• Protein factory
• Protein factories:
– Proteins produced according to genetic
information contained in mRNA.
– Located in cytoplasm and on the surface
of endoplasmic reticulum.
• rRNA molecules serve as enzymes
(ribozymes) required for protein
synthesis.
– Contains 2 subunits composed of rRNA
and proteins.
 Centrosomes
• Center of the cell
near nucleus
• Cenrtrioles
• Cell division mitotic
 Cell Nucleus

• Most cells have single nucleus.

• Enclosed by inner and outer membrane (nuclear
envelope).
– Outer membrane is continuous with ER.
• Nuclear pore complexes fuse inner and outer
membranes together.
– Selective active transport of proteins and RNA.
• Regulation of gene expression.
– Transport of mRNA out of nucleus to ribosomes.
• Nucleoli:
– DNA contains the genes that code for the production of
mRNA.
 Chromatin

• DNA within nucleus combines with protein (histones) to form

chromatin.
– Thread-like material that makes up the chromosomes.
– Histone proteins are positively charged and form spools around which
the negatively charged DNA strands wrap.
• Euchromatin:
– Active in genetic transcription.
• Heterochromatin:
– Contains genes that are permanently inactivated.
 Cell division

• MiTosis: all
somaTic cell
• mEiosis : gErm
cell
•
Cell
Interphase (non-dividing cell
cycle
phases):
– G1:
• Produces mRNA and proteins.
– S:
• If cell is going to divide, DNA
replicated.
– G2:
• Chromosome consists of 2
chromatids joined by centromere.
• Each chromatid contains a complete
double-helix DNA molecule. Each
chromatid will become a separate
chromosome once mitotic division
completed.
• Completes interphase.
 Cyclins
• Cyclins promote different phases of the cell
cycle.
– During G1 phase an increase in cyclin D proteins
activates enzymes to move the cell quickly
through the G1 phase.
• Overactivity of a gene that codes for cyclin D
might cause uncontrolled cell division (cancer).
• Oncogenes:
– Mutated forms of normal genes that contribute
to cancer.
• Tumor suppressor genes:
– Inhibit cancer development.
– Suppressor gene p53 indirectly blocks the
ability of cyclins to stimulate cell division.
• Induces the expression of gene p21, which
inactivates the cyclin-dependent kinases.
• Promotes cell differentiation.
 Mitosis (M Phase)

– Prophase:
• Chromosomes become visible distinct structures.
– Metaphase:
• Chromosomes line up single file along equator.
– Action of spindle fibers attached to kinetochore
– Anaphase:
• Centromeres split apart.
– Spindle fibers shorten, pulling the 2 chromatids in each
chromosome to opposite poles.
– Telophase:
• Division of cytoplasm, producing 2 daughter cells.
Mitosis (continued)
Mitosis (continued)
 Meiosis (Reduction Division)

• Cell division occurring in ovaries and testes

to produce gametes (ova and sperm cells).
• Has 2 divisional sequences:
– First division:
• Homologous chromosomes line up side by side
along equator of cell.
• Spindle fibers pull 1 member of the homologous
pair to each pole.
– Each of the daughter cells contains 23 different
chromosomes, consisting of 2 chromatids.
Meiosis (Reduction Division) (continued)

– Second division:
• Each daughter cell divides, with duplicate
chromatids going to each new daughter cell.
– Testes: produce 4 sperm cells.
– Ovaries: produce one mature egg, polar bodies die.
 Cell Death

• Pathologically:
– Cells deprived of blood supply swell, the membrane ruptures,
and the cell bursts (necrosis).
• Apoptosis:
– Cells shrink, membranes become bubbled, nuclei condense.
• Capsases (“executioner enzymes”):
– Mitochondria membranes become permeable to proteins and
other products.
• Programmed cell death:
– Physiological process responsible for remodeling of tissues
during embryonic development and tissue turnover in the adult.