Unit - I Ce 6405 Soil Mechanics

CE 6405 SOIL MECHANICS
1
UNIT I SOIL CLASSIFICATION AND
COMPACTION
• Nature of soil – phase relationships – Soil
description and classification for engineering
purposes, their significance – Index
properties of soils - BIS Classification system
– Soil compaction – Theory, comparison of
laboratory and field compaction methods –
Factors influencing compaction behavior of
soils.
2
Origin of soils
• The earths’ crust composed of soil and rocks.
• Rock can be defined as a natural aggregate of
minerals that are connected by strong bonding
or attractive forces.
• Soil may be defined as the unconsolidated
material, sediments and deposits of solid
particles that have resulted from the
disintegration of the rock.
3
What is Soil?
In general sense of engineering, soil is defined
as the un-cemented aggregate or granular
material of mineral grains and decayed organic
matter along with the liquid and gas that
occupy the empty spaces between the solid
particles.
Most of the man made structures except those

which float or fly are supported by natural soil
or rock deposits.
.
4
What is Soil Mechanics?
Soil mechanics is the branch of science that
deals with the study of the physical properties
of soil and the behavior of soil mass subjected
to various types of forces.
In other words, soil mechanics is the study of

both solid and fluid mechanical characteristics
of soils.
5
Soiled Mechanics Issues
When loads are applied, at what rate does
soil deform?
How much load can we apply to the soil
before it fails?
 How does soil fail?
6
Why do, as Civil Engineers, study “soil
mechanics”?
In brief all branches of civil engineering
require an understanding of soil and how it
behaves namely
Structural Engineering
Transportation Engineering
Environmental Engineering
Hydraulic Engineering
7
• Civil Engineers must study the properties of
soil, such as its:
• Origin
• Grain Size Distribution
• Ability to drain water
• Strength of the soil
• Mechanical behaviour of the soil when they
are sheared or compressed or when after
flows through it.
8
Origin of soil:
• Residual soil is formed from the weathering of
the rock and they remain at the location of their
origin; this is the material which may possess
mineralogical resemblance to the parent rock.
• Transported soil is the soil where the materials

are being moved from the place of their origin
to agencies like gravity, water, glaciers or man
either singularly or in combination but residual
soils remain in the same place
9
Characteristics of residual soils mainly
dependent on:
• Climatic conditions like humidity, temperature,
rainfall in that particular area
• The natural drainage pattern
• Form and extent of vegetation cover
10
This transported soils which are transported by
different agencies are classified based on the
transporting agency and the method of deposition:
 Alluvial soils transported in running water like rivers
 Lacustrine soils deposited in quiet lakes
 Marine soil are deposited in sea water,
 Aeolin soils are transported by agency called wind
11
• Aeolin soils are transported by agency called wind
• Glacial is transported by ice whereas Glaciation is a

process of massive movement of the ice sheets.
• Colluvial soils are deposited through the action of

landslide and slope wash
12
Examples about different types of transported
soils:
LOESS is the wind blown deposit with very
uniform fine silt particles and possesses slight
cementation properties because of the
presence of carbonates within it. They are
formed basically in arid and semi-arid regions
with yellowish light brown color.
Tuff is the fine grained slightly cemented
volcanic ash which is formed by wind or water.
13
Examples about different types of transported soils:
• The Glacial till which is mainly formed in hilly
region is heterogeneous mixtures of boulders, gravel,
sand, silt and clay
• varved clay where alternate layers of silt and clay
deposited in fresh water glacial lakes. Generally one
band of silt and clay deposited each year and each
layer is approximately around 1 cm or 10 mm thick.
• Marl origin is in the marine environment
• Peat is a highly organic soil consisting almost
entirely of vegetable matter in varying stages of
decomposition.
14
According Karl Terzaghi
Unfortunately soils are made by nature not by
man and the products of nature are always complex. As
soon as we pass from steel and concrete to the earth the
omnipotence of the theory ceases to exist. Natural soil is
never uniform. That is a very important consideration he
has made at that time. Its properties change from point to
point while other knowledge of its properties are limited
to those few spots at which samples have been collected.
In soil mechanics the accuracy of computed results never
exceeds that of a crude estimate and the principle function
of theory consists of in teaching us what and how to
observe in the field
15
2. Phase Relations
16
3.1 Three Phases in Soils
S : Solid Soil particle
W: Liquid Water (electrolytes)
A: Air Air
17
Volumetric Ratios
The volumetric ratios commonly used in soil
mechanics are:
Void ratio e
Porosity n
Degree of saturation S
Air content ac
Air void ratio or Percentage air voids is na
18
• Void ratio e is defined as the ratio of volume of voids to
the volume of solids.
• volume of voids to the volume of the solid mass is
nothing but a void ratio. Volume of voids refers to that
portion of the volume of the soil not occupied by the solid
grains
• Since the relationship between the Volume of air and the
Volume of water usually changes with ground water
conditions as well as imposed loads it is convenient to
designate all the volumes not occupied by solid grains as
void space that is volume of voids Vv.
19
3.2 Three Volumetric Ratios
• (1) Void ratio e (given in decimal, 0.65)
Volume of voids (Vv )
e
Volume of solids (Vs )
• (2) Porosity n (given in percent 100%, 65%)

Vse e Volume of voids (Vv )
n  n
Vs (1  e) 1  e Total volume of soil sample (Vt )
• (3) Degree of Saturation S (given in percent 100%, 65%)

Total volume of voids contains water (Vw )
S 100%
Total volume of voids (Vv )
20
3.2.2 Engineering Applications (S)
•Completely dry soil S = 0 %
•Completely saturated soil S = 100%
•Unsaturated soil (partially saturated soil) 0% < S < 100%
Total volume of voids contains water (Vw )

S 100%
Total volume of voids (Vv )
•Engineering implications:
–Slope stability
–Underground excavation
21
3.3 Density and Unit Weight
• Mass is a measure of a body's Mass
inertia, or its "quantity of Density ,  
Volume
matter". Mass is not changed
Weight Mass  g
at different places. Unit weight ,   
Volume Volume
• Weight is force, the force of
gravity acting on a body. The g : accelerati on due to gravity
value is different at various     g    9.8 m 2
places (Newton's second law F sec
= ma) (Giancoli, 1998) Water ,   9.8 kN 3
m
• The unit weight is frequently

used than the density is (e.g. s   g s
Gs   s 
in calculating the overburden w w  g  w
pressure).
22
3.4 Weight Relationships
 (1)Water Content w (100%) (3) Density of soil
a. Dry density
Mass of water ( M w )
w 100% Mass of soil solids (M s )
Mass of soil solids ( M s ) d 
 Total volume of soil sample (Vt )
 For some organic soils w>100%, up b. Total, Wet, or Moist density (0%<S<100%,
to 500 % Unsaturated)
 For quick clays, w>100% Mass of soil sample (M s  M w )

Total volume of soil sample (Vt )
 (2)Density of water (slightly varied c. Saturated density (S=100%, Va =0)
with temperatures)
Mass of soil solids  water (M s  M w )
sat 
Total volume of soil sample (Vt )
d. Submerged density (Buoyant density)
 w  1g / cm3  1000 kg / m3  1Mg / m3
'  sat   w
23
3.4 Weight Relationships (Cont.)
•Submerged unit weight: '   sat   w
•Consider the buoyant force Ws  Vs   w Ws  (Vt  Vw )   w

 (S  100%)
acting on the soil solids: Vt Vt
Ws  Vt   w  Ww

Vt
Ws  Ww  Vt   w

Vt
•Archimede’s principle:   sat   w
•The buoyant force on a body immersed
in a fluid is equal to the weight of the
fluid displaced by that object.
24
3.5 Other Relationships
(1) Specific gravity •Proof:
s  s S  e  w  Gs
Gs  
w  w S e 
Vw Vv Vw
 
Vv Vs Vs
Ms
(2) M w s M w Vs Vw
w  S  e  w  s w  Gs     
M s w M s M w Vs
S  e  w  Gs Vw
25
3.6 Typical Values of Specific Gravity
(Lambe and Whitman, 1979)

26
(Goodman, 1989)
3.7 Solution of Phase Problems
• Remember the following simple rules (Holtz and Kovacs,
:
1981)
1.Remember the basic definitions of w, e, s, S,

etc.
2.Draw a phase diagram.
3.Assume either Vs=1 or Vt=1, if not given.
4.Often use wSe=ws, Se = wGs
27
II.
Physical Properties
28
1. Soil Texture
29
1.1 Soil Texture
•The texture of a soil is its appearance or “feel” and it
depends on the relative sizes and shapes of the
particles as well as the range or distribution of those
sizes.
Coarse-grained soils: Fine-grained soils:
Gravel Sand Silt Clay
0.075 mm (IS)
Sieve analysis Hydrometer analysis
30
1.2 Characteristics
(Holtz and Kovacs, 1981)
31
2.2 Grain Size Distribution (Cont.)
•Experiment
0.075 mm (IS)
(Head, 1992)
Sieve analysis Hydrometer analysis
32
Log scale
Effective size D10: 0.02 mm
D30: D60: (Holtz and Kovacs, 1981)
33
Effective size (D10):
• Effective size (D10): This parameter is the
diameter in the particle-size distribution curve
corresponding to 10% finer. The effective size
of a granular soil is a good measure to
estimate the hydraulic conductivity an
drainage through soils.
34
Coefficient of Curvature Cc
• Another shape parameter, as the second

moment of grain size distribution curve, is
called the coefficient of curvature, and
defined as Cc= (D30 D30)/(D10 D60)
• A soil is thought to be well graded if the
coefficient of curvature Cc between 1 and 3,
with Cu greater than 4 for gravels and 6 for
sands.
35
•Describe the shape •Criteria
• Example: well graded
D10  0.02 mm (effective size ) Well  graded soil

D30  0.6 mm 1  Cc  3 and C u  4
D 60  9 mm (for gravels )
Coefficien t of uniformity 1  Cc  3 and C u  6
D 9 (for sands )
C u  60   450
D10 0.02
Coefficien t of curvature
2 2
•Question
(D 30 ) ( 0 .6 )
Cc   2 •What is the Cu for a soil with
(D10 )( D 60 ) (0.02)(9)
only one grain size?
36
Answer
•Question
•What is the Cu for a soil with only one grain
size?
Coefficient of uniformity
Finer
D
Cu  60  1
D10
Grain size distribution
37
3. Particle Shape
Coarse- Rounded Subrounded

grained
soils
 Important for Subangular

granular soils Angular
 Angular soil particle  higher friction
 Round soil particle  lower friction (Holtz and Kovacs, 1981)
 Note that clay particles are sheet-like.
38
4. Atterberg Limits
and
Consistency Indices
39
4.1 Atterberg Limits
• The presence of water in fine-grained soils can significantly affect
associated engineering behavior, so we need a reference index to clarify
the effects. (The reason will be discussed later in the topic of clay minerals)
In percentage
(Holtz and Kovacs, 1981) 40

4.1 Atterberg Limits (Cont.)
Fluid soil-water
Liquid State
mixture
Liquid Limit, LL
Plastic State
Increasing water content
Plastic Limit, PL
Semisolid State
Shrinkage Limit, SL
Solid State
Dry Soil
41
4.2.1 Casagrande Method
•Device
N=25 blows
Closing distance =
12.7mm (0.5 in)
The water content, in percentage, required to close a

distance of 0.5 in (12.7mm) along the bottom of the groove
after 25 blows is defined as the liquid limit 42
4.2.1 Casagrande Method (Cont.)
•Multipoint Method
N
Das, 1998
w1  w2
Flow index , I F  (choose a positive value)
log  N 2 / N1 
w   I F log N  cont. 43
4.3 Plastic Limit-PL
The plastic limit PL is defined as the water content at which a soil thread with 3.2 mm
diameter just crumbles.
ASTM D4318-95a, BS1377: Part 2:1990:5.3
44
4.4 Shrinkage Limit-SL
Definition of shrinkage
limit:
The water content at
which the soil volume
ceases to change is defined
as the shrinkage limit.
SL
(Das, 1998)
45
4.4 Shrinkage Limit-SL (Cont.)
Soil volume: Vi
Soil mass: M1
Soil volume: Vf
Soil mass: M2
(Das, 1998)
SL  w i (%)  w (%)
 M1  M 2   Vi  Vf 
  (100)   ( w )(100)
 M2   M2 
46
4.5 Typical Values of Atterberg Limits
(Mitchell, 1993)
47
4.6 Indices
•Plasticity index PI •Liquidity index LI
•For describing the range of •For scaling the natural water
water content over which a content of a soil sample to
soil was plastic the Limits.
•PI = LL – PL w  PL w  PL
LI  
PI LL  PL
Liquid State C
Liquid Limit, LL
w is the water content
PI Plastic State B
Plastic Limit, PL LI <0 (A), brittle fracture if sheared
Semisolid State A
0<LI<1 (B), plastic solid if sheared
Shrinkage Limit, SL
LI >1 (C), viscous liquid if sheared
Solid State
48
4.6 Indices (Cont.)
Clay
particle
•Sensitivity St (for clays) w > LL
Water
Strength (undisturbe d )
St 
Strength (disturbed )
Unconfined shear strength
(Holtz and Kavocs, 1981)

49
4.6 Indices (Cont.)
•Activity A •Normal clays: 0.75<A<1.25
•Inactive clays: A<0.75
•(Skempton, 1953)
•Active clays: A> 1.25
PI •High activity:
A
% clay fraction ( weight ) •large volume change when
clay fraction :  0.002 mm wetted
•Large shrinkage when dried Mitchell, 1993
•Very reactive (chemically)
•Purpose
Both the type and amount of clay in
soils will affect the Atterberg limits.
This index is aimed to separate them.
50
4.7 Engineering Applications
• Soil classification
(the next topic)
 The Atterberg limit enable
clay soils to be classified.
• The Atterberg limits are usually correlated with some engineering

properties such as the permeability, compressibility, shear strength,
and others.
 In general, clays with high plasticity have lower permeability, and they are
difficult to be compacted.
 The values of SL can be used as a criterion to assess and prevent the
51
excessive cracking of clay liners in the reservoir embankment or canal.
III.
Soil Classification
52
3.1 Definition of Grain Size
No specific grain
size-use Atterberg
limits
Gravel Sand Silt and

Boulders Cobbles Clay
Coarse Fine Coarse Medium Fine
300 mm 75 mm No.4 No.200

4.75 mm 0.075
19 mm No.10 No.40 mm
2.0 mm 0.425 mm
53
3.2 General Guidance
50 %

50% NO. 4 NO.200

4.75 mm 0.075 mm
•Grain size distribution •PL, LL LL>50 LL

<50
•Cu •Plasticity chart
•Cc
Required tests: Sieve analysis

Atterberg limit
54
3.3 Symbols
•Soil symbols: •Liquid limit symbols:
•G: Gravel •H: High LL (LL>50)
•S: Sand •L: Low LL (LL<50)
•M: Silt •Gradation symbols:
•C: Clay •W: Well-graded
•O: Organic •P: Poorly-graded
•Pt: Peat Well  graded soil
Example: SW, Well-graded sand 1  Cc  3 and C u  4
(for gravels )
SC, Clayey sand
1  Cc  3 and C u  6
SM, Silty sand,
(for sands )
MH, Elastic silt
55
3.4 Plasticity Chart
L H
• The A-line generally
separates the more
claylike materials from
silty materials, and the
PI
organics from the
inorganics.
• The U-line indicates
the upper bound for
general soils.
Note: If the measured

limits of soils are on
the left of U-line, they
LL should be rechecked.

56
• The A-line generally separates the more
claylike materials from those that are silty and
also the organics from the inorganics.
57
3.5 Procedures for Classification
Coarse-grained
material
Grain size
distribution
Fine-grained
material
LL, PI
Highly
(Santamarina et al., 2001) 58

• Peat: a soil composed of vegetable tissue in
various stages of decomposition usually with
an organic odor, a dark-brown to black color, a
spongy consistency, and a texture ranging
from fibrous to amorphous.
• Organic clay: a clay with sufficient organic
content to influence the soil properties. For
classification, an organic clay is a soil that
would be classified as a clay except that its
liquid limit value after oven drying is less than
59
3.7 Organic Soils
• Highly organic soils- Peat (Group symbol PT)
 A sample composed primarily of vegetable tissue in various stages of
decomposition and has a fibrous to amorphous texture, a dark-
brown to black color, and an organic odor should be designated as a
highly organic soil and shall be classified as peat, PT.
• Organic clay or silt( group symbol OL or OH):

 “The soil’s liquid limit (LL) after oven drying is less than 75 % of its
liquid limit before oven drying.” If the above statement is true, then
the first symbol is O.
 The second symbol is obtained by locating the values of PI and LL
(not oven dried) in the plasticity chart.
60
3.8 Borderline Cases (Dual Symbols)
•For the following three conditions, a dual symbol should be
used.
– Coarse-grained soils with 5% - 12% fines.
About 7 % fines can change the hydraulic conductivity
of the coarse-grained media by orders of magnitude.
The first symbol indicates whether the coarse fraction is
well or poorly graded. The second symbol describe the
contained fines. For example: SP-SM, poorly graded
sand with silt.
– Fine-grained soils with limits within the shaded
zone. (PI between 4 and 7 and LL between about
12 and 25).
It is hard to distinguish between the silty and more
61
IV
Clay Minerals and Soil
Structure
62
1.1 Origin of Clay Minerals
•“The contact of rocks and water produces clays, either at or near the
surface of the earth” (from Velde, 1995).
• Rock +Water  Clay
•For example,
•The CO2 gas can dissolve in water and form carbonic acid, which will
become hydrogen ions H+ and bicarbonate ions, and make water slightly
acidic.
• CO2+H2O  H2CO3 H+ +HCO3-
•The acidic water will react with the rock surfaces and tend to dissolve the K
ion and silica from the feldspar. Finally, the feldspar is transformed into
kaolinite.
•Feldspar + hydrogen ions+water  clay (kaolinite) + cations, dissolved silica
• 2KAlSi3O8+2H+ +H2O  Al2Si2O5(OH)4 + 2K+ +4SiO2
•Note that the hydrogen ion displaces the cations.
63
1.2 Basic Unit-Summary
Mitchell, 1993
64
1.3 Synthesis
Mitchell, 1993
Noncrystalli
ne clay -
allophane
65
1.4 1:1 Minerals-Kaolinite
Basal spacing is 7.2 Å
layer
• Si4Al4O10(OH)8. Platy shape

• The bonding between layers are van der Waals
forces and hydrogen bonds (strong bonding).
• There is no interlayer swelling
Trovey, 1971 ( from • Width: 0.1~ 4m, Thickness: 0.05~2 m
Mitchell, 1993)
66
17 m
1.4 1:1 Minerals-Halloysite
• Si4Al4O10(OH)8·4H2O
• A single layer of water between unit layers.
• The basal spacing is 10.1 Å for hydrated
halloysite and 7.2 Å for dehydrated halloysite.
• If the temperature is over 50 °C or the
relative humidity is lower than 50%, the
hydrated halloysite will lose its interlayer
water (Irfan, 1966). Note that this process is
irreversible and will affect the results of soil
classifications (GSD and Atterberg limits) and
compaction tests.
• There is no interlayer swelling.
• Tubular shape while it is hydrated.
Trovey, 1971 ( from
Mitchell, 1993)
2 m
67
1.5 2:1 Minerals-Montmorillonite
• Si8Al4O20(OH)4·nH2O (Theoretical
unsubstituted). Film-like shape.
• There is extensive isomorphous
substitution for silicon and aluminum by
other cations, which results in charge
deficiencies of clay particles.
• n·H2O and cations exist between unit
n·H2O+cations layers, and the basal spacing is from 9.6 Å
to  (after swelling).
• The interlayer bonding is by van der Waals
forces and by cations which balance
charge deficiencies (weak bonding).
• There exists interlayer swelling, which is
very important to engineering practice
(expansive clay).
• Width: 1 or 2 m, Thickness: 10
Å~1/100 width
68
5 m (Holtz and Kovacs, 1981)
1.5 2:1 Minerals-Illite (mica-like minerals)
• Si8(Al,Mg, Fe)4~6O20(OH)4·(K,H2O)2. Flaky shape.
• The basic structure is very similar to the mica, so it is
sometimes referred to as hydrous mica. Illite is the
chief constituent in many shales.
potassium K
• Some of the Si4+ in the tetrahedral sheet are replaced
by the Al3+, and some of the Al3+ in the octahedral
sheet are substituted by the Mg2+ or Fe3+. Those are
the origins of charge deficiencies.
• The charge deficiency is balanced by the potassium
ion between layers. Note that the potassium atom
can exactly fit into the hexagonal hole in the
tetrahedral sheet and form a strong interlayer
bonding.
• The basal spacing is fixed at 10 Å in the presence of
polar liquids (no interlayer swelling).
• Width: 0.1~ several m, Thickness: ~ 30 Å
Trovey, 1971 ( from

7.5 m Mitchell, 1993) 69
2. Identification of Clay Minerals
70
2.1 X-ray diffraction
Mitchell, 1993
• The distance of atomic planes d can be determined based on the Bragg’s equation.
BC+CD = n, n = 2d·sin, d = n/2 sin
where n is an integer and  is the wavelength.
• Different clays minerals have various basal spacing (atomic planes). For example, the
basing spacing of kaolinite is 7.2 Å.
71
2.2 Differential Thermal Analysis (DTA)
• Differential thermal analysis (DTA)
consists of simultaneously heating a test
sample and a thermally inert substance
at constant rate (usually about 10
ºC/min) to over 1000 ºC and
continuously measuring differences in
temperature and the inert material T.
• Endothermic (take up heat) or
exothermic (liberate heat) reactions
can take place at different heating
For example: temperatures. The mineral types can be
Quartz changes from the  to  form at 573 ºC and characterized based on those signatures
an endothermic peak can be observed. shown in the left figure.
(from Mitchell, 1993)
T
Temperature (100 ºC) 72

2.2 DTA (Cont.)
•If the sample is thermally •If the phase transition of
inert, the sample occurs,
T T
Crystallize
Melt
Time t Time t
Endothermic reactions take up Exothermic reactions liberate heat
heat from surroundings and to surroundings and therefore the
therefore the temperature T temperatureT increases.
decreases.
T= the temperature of the sample – the temperature of the thermally inert substance.
73
3. Specific Surface (Ss)
74
3.1 Definition
Specific surface  surface / volume
Specific surface  surface / mass Preferred
Surface related force Surface related forces: van der Waals

Gravationa l force forces, capillary forces, etc.
Example:
111cm cube ,   2.65g / cm 3
6 1cm 2 4
Ss   2.3  10  m 2
/g Ss is inversely
1cm  2.65 g / cm
3 3
proportional to
111m cube ,   2.65g / cm3 the particle size
6 1m 2
Ss   2.3  m 2
/g
1m3  2.65 g / cm 3
75
3.2 Typical Values
50-120 m2/gm (external surface)
Montmorillonite
700-840 m2/gm (including the interlayer surface)
Interlayer surface
Illite
65-100 m2/gm
Kaolinite
10-20 m2/gm
76
4.5 Clay-Water Interaction (Cont.)
Relative sizes of adsorbed water layers on sodium montmorillonite and sodium

kaolinite
Holtz and Kovacs, 1981

77
5.4 Interaction of Clay Particles
Dispersed fabric Flocculated fabric
Edge-to-face (EF): positively

charged edges and negatively charged
surfaces (more common)
Edge-to-edge (EE)
The net interparticle force
between surfaces is repulsive Aggregated fabric
Face-to-Face (FF) Shifted FF
78
5.5 Atterberg Limit of Clay Minerals
Na-montmorillonite
•Thicker double layer
•LL=710
Ca-montmorillonite
•Thinner double layer
•LL=510
The thickness of double layer
increases with decreasing cation
valence.
Lambe and Whitman, 1979

79
5.6 Cation Replaceability
• Different types and quantities of cations are adsorbed to balance charge deficiencies
in clay particles.
• The types of adsorbed cations depend on the depositional environment. For
example, sodium and magnesium are dominant cations in marine clays since they
are common in sea water. In general, calcium and magnesium are the predominant
cations.
• The adsorbed cations are exchangeable (replaceable). For example,
Na Na Na Na Ca Ca
+4CaCl2  +8NaCl
Na Na Na Na Ca Ca
80
5.6 Cation Replaceability (Cont.)
•The ease of cation replacement Non-hydrated Hydrated
depends on the Cations
radius (Å) radius (Å)
•(1) Valence (primarily) Li+ 0.68 3.8
 Higher valence cations can replace
cations of lower valence. Na+ 0.95 3.6
•(2) Ion size K+ 1.33 3.3
 Cations with larger non-hydrated Cs+ 1.69 3.3
radii or smaller hydrated radii have
greater replacement power. Be2+ 0.31 4.6
•According to rules (1) and (2), the Mg2+ 0.65 4.3
general order of replacement is
Ca2+ 0.99 4.1
•Li+<Na+<K+<Rb+<Cs+<Mg2+<Ca2+<Ba2+<Cu
2+<Al3+<Fe3+<Th4+
Ba2+ 1.35
•(3) Relative amount Al3+ 0.5 4.8
 High concentration of
Na+ can displace Al3+. Fe3+ 0.6
(Data compiled from
Israelachvili, 1991)
81
5.7 Cation Replaceability (Cont.)
•Hard water softener
•Hard water contains soluble calcium and magnesium salts such as Ca(HCO3)2
and Mg(HCO3)2. The hardness can be removed by exchanging Ca2+ and Mg2+
with sodium ions Na+. For example,
•Na2Z(s) (Zeolite) + Ca2+(aq)  CaZ(s)+2 Na+(aq)
•As the ion-exchange capacity of Zeolite is saturated, the capacity can be

regained by passing through a concentrated solution of NaCl.
82
5.7 Cation Exchange Capacity (cec)
•The quantity of exchangeable cations is termed the cation
exchangeable capacity (cec) and is usually expressed as
milliequivalents (meq) per 100 gram of dry clay ( from Mitchell, 1993).
• One equivalent = 6.021023 electron charges or 96500 Coulombs, which is 1

Faraday.
83
5.8 Swelling Potential
Practically speaking, the three ingredients generally necessary for potentially
damaging swelling to occur are (1) presence of montmorillonite in the soil, (2)
the natural water content must be around the PL, and (3) there must be a source
of water for the potentially swelling clay (Gromko, 1974, from Holtz and Kovacs, 1981)
U.S. Bureau of
Reclamation
84
5.9 Engineering Applications
• Lime treatment for the swelling clay
•The swelling clay such as Na-montmorillonite beneath the foundation is
potentially harmful to the light structure. Adding lime (CaO) into such
soil can effectively reduce the swelling potential due to Ca2+ displacing
Na+, and can increase the strength by dehydration of soils and
cementation.
• Drilling mud The swelling clays can form
Soil particle a so-called “filter cake” and
enable soil layers to become Pressure
relatively impermeable. profile of
slurry
Earth
Bentonite or pressure+
Polymer ground water
pressure
Trench
Montmorillonite is the dominant clay mineral in bentonite
Xanthakos, 1991 85
5.9 Engineering Applications (Cont.)
86
Xanthakos, 1991
9. Soil Fabrics-Granular Soils
87
9.1 Packing
Loose packing Dense packing
Honeycombed fabric
•Meta-stable structure
•Loose fabric
•Liquefaction
•Sand boil
88
9.1 Packing (Cont.)
•“Contrary to popular belief, it is not possible to drown in
quicksand, unless you really work at it, because the density
of quicksand is much greater than that of water. Since you
can almost float in water, you should easily be able to float in
quicksand “(from Holtz and Kovacs, 1981).
Help!
89
9.3 The Relative Density (Dr)
•The relative density Dr is used to characterize
the density of natural granular soil.
e max  e
Dr  100%
e max  e min
 d max  d   d min
  100%
d  d max   d min

The relative density of a natural soil deposit very strongly affects its
engineering behavior. Consequently, it is important to conduct laboratory
tests on samples of the sand at the same relative density as in the field (
from Holtz and Kovacs, 1981). (compaction)
90
Derivation
e max  e
Dr  100%
e max  e min
 d max    d min
  d 100%
d  d max   d min
91
V
Compaction
Courtesy of U.S. WICK DRAIN, INC.
92
2.1 Compaction and Objectives
Compaction
•Many types of earth construction, such as dams, retaining walls, highways,
and airport, require man-placed soil, or fill. To compact a soil, that is, to
place it in a dense state.
•The dense state is achieved through the reduction of the air voids in the soil,
with little or no reduction in the water content. This process must not be
confused with consolidation, in which water is squeezed out under the
action of a continuous static load.
Objectives:
(1) Decrease future settlements
(2) Increase shear strength
(3) Decrease permeability
(From Lambe, 1991; Head, 1992)
93
dough
2.2 General Compaction Methods

Coarse-grained soils Fine-grained soils
•Vibrating hammer (BS) •Falling weight and hammers

Laboratory
•Kneading compactors
•Static loading and press
•Hand-operated vibration plates

•Motorized vibratory rollers
•Hand-operated tampers
•Rubber-tired equipment
Field
•Sheepsfoot rollers
•Free-falling weight; dynamic
compaction (low frequency •Rubber-tired rollers
vibration, 4~10 Hz)
Vibration Kneading
94
(Holtz and Kovacs, 1981; Head, 1992)
3. Theory of Compaction
(Laboratory Test)
95
The purpose of a laboratory
compaction test
• The purpose of a laboratory compaction test is
to determine the proper amount of mixing
water to use when compacting the soil in the
field and the resulting degree of denseness
which can be expected from compaction at
this optimum water
96
Impact compaction
• The proctor test is an impact compaction. A

hammer is dropped several times on a soil
sample in a mold. The mass of the hammer,
height of drop, number of drops, number of
layers of soil, and the volume of the mold are
specified.
97
3.1.2 Test Equipment
Standard Proctor test equipment
Das, 1998 98
3.1.3 Comparison-Summary
Standard Proctor Test Modified Proctor Test
12 in height of drop 18 in height of drop
5.5 lb hammer 10 lb hammer
25 blows/layer 25 blows/layer
3 layers 5 layers
Mold size: 1/30 ft3 Mold size: 1/30 ft3
Energy 12,375 ft·lb/ft3 Energy 56,250 ft·lb/ft3
Higher compacting energy
99
3.2 Variables of Compaction
Proctor established that compaction is a function of four variables:
(1)Dry density (d) or dry unit weight d.
(2)Water content w
(3)Compactive effort (energy E)
(4)Soil type (gradation, presence of clay minerals, etc.)
Height of Number of
For standard Weight of  drop of  blows per  Number of
hammer layers
Proctor test hammer layer
E=
Volume of mold
2.495 kg (9.81m / s 2 )(0.3048 m)(3 layers)(25 blows / layer)

E
0.944  103 m3
 592.7 kJ / m3 (12,375 ft lb / ft 3 )
100
3.3 Procedures and Results
 Procedures
(1)Several samples of the same soil, but at different water contents, are
compacted according to the compaction test specifications.
The first four blows

The successive blows
(2)The total or wet density and the actual water content of each
compacted sample are measured.
Mt  Derive d from the known 

 , d 
Vt 1 w and w
(3)Plot the dry densities d versus water contents w for each compacted
sample. The curve is called as a compaction curve.
101
3.3 Procedures and Results (Cont.)
Results
Peak point Line of Zero air

optimums
Dry density d (Mg/m3)
Line of optimum void
Dry density d (lb/ft3)

d max
Zero air void
Modified
Proctor
Standard
Proctor
wopt
Water content w (%) Holtz and Kovacs, 1981
102
•The peak point of the compaction curve
•The peak point of the compaction curve is the point with the maximum
dry density d max. Corresponding to the maximum dry density d max is a
water content known as the optimum water content wopt (also known as
the optimum moisture content, OMC). Note that the maximum dry
density is only a maximum for a specific compactive effort and method of
compaction. This does not necessarily reflect the maximum dry density
that can be obtained in the field.
•Zero air voids curve
•The curve represents the fully saturated condition (S = 100 %). (It cannot
be reached by compaction)
•Line of optimums
•A line drawn through the peak points of several compaction curves at
different compactive efforts for the same soil will be almost parallel to a
100 % S curve, it is called the line of optimums
103
The Equation for the curves with
different degree of saturation is :
wS  S
d   w
 S
w wS w
s Gs
You can derive the equation by

yourself
s
Hint: d 
1 e
Se  wG s

104
3.3 Procedures and Results-
Explanation
Below wopt (dry side of optimum): Lubrication or loss of
As the water content increases, the particles suction??
develop larger and larger water films around them,
which tend to “lubricate” the particles and make
them easier to be moved about and reoriented into (wopt, d max)
a denser configuration.
At wopt: d
The density is at the maximum, and it does not
increase any further.
Above wopt (wet side of optimum): w

Water starts to replace soil particles in the mold,
and since w << s the dry density starts to
decrease.
105
3.4 Effects of Soil Types on
Compaction
•The soil type-that is, grain-size distribution, shape of the soil grains,
specific gravity of soil solids, and amount and type of clay minerals
present.
106
Holtz and Kovacs, 1981; Das, 1998
5. Field Compaction Equipment
and Procedures
107
5.1 Equipment
Smooth-wheel roller (drum) • 100% coverage under the wheel
• Contact pressure up to 380 kPa
• Can be used on all soil types except
for rocky soils.
• Compactive effort: static weight
• The most common use of large smooth
wheel rollers is for proof-rolling
subgrades and compacting asphalt
pavement.
108
5.1 Equipment (Cont.)
Pneumatic (or rubber-tired) roller • 80% coverage under the wheel
• Contact pressure up to 700 kPa
• Can be used for both granular and
fine-grained soils.
• Compactive effort: static weight and
kneading.
• Can be used for highway fills or earth
dam construction.
109
Sheepsfoot rollers • Has many round or rectangular shaped
protrusions or “feet” attached to a steel
drum
• 8% ~ 12 % coverage
• Contact pressure is from 1400 to 7000
kPa
• It is best suited for clayed soils.
kneading.
110
Tamping foot roller • About 40% coverage
kPa
• It is best for compacting fine-grained
soils (silt and clay).
kneading.
111
Mesh (or grid pattern) roller • 50% coverage
kPa
• It is ideally suited for compacting rocky
soils, gravels, and sands. With high
towing speed, the material is vibrated,
crushed, and impacted.
vibration.
112
Vibrating drum on smooth-wheel roller • Vertical vibrator attached to smooth
wheel rollers.
• The best explanation of why roller
vibration causes densification of
granular soils is that particle
rearrangement occurs due to cyclic
deformation of the soil produced by
the oscillations of the roller.
vibration.
• Suitable for granular soils
113
5.1 Equipment-Summary
Holtz and Kovacs, 1981 114

5.2 Variables-Vibratory
Compaction
•There are many variables which control the vibratory
compaction or densification of soils.
•Characteristics of the compactor:
•(1) Mass, size
•(2) Operating frequency and frequency range
•Characteristics of the soil:
•(1) Initial density
•(2) Grain size and shape
•(3) Water content
•Construction procedures:
•(1) Number of passes of the roller
•(2) Lift thickness
•(3) Frequency of operation vibrator
•(4) Towing speed
115
5.3 Dynamic Compaction
Dynamic compaction was first used in Germany in
the mid-1930’s.
The depth of influence D, in meters, of soil
undergoing compaction is conservatively given by
D  ½ (Wh)1/2
W = mass of falling weight in metric tons.
h = drop height in meters
From Holtz and Kovacs, 1981 116

5.4 Vibroflotation
Vibroflotation is a technique for in
situ densification of thick layers of
loose granular soil deposits. It was
developed in Germany in the 1930s.
From Das, 1998 117

5.4 Vibroflotation-Procedures
From Das, 1998
Stage1: The jet at the bottom of the Vibroflot is turned on and lowered into the ground
Stage2: The water jet creates a quick condition in the soil. It allows the vibrating unit to sink into the
ground
Stage 3: Granular material is poured from the top of the hole. The water from the lower jet is
transferred to he jet at the top of the vibrating unit. This water carries the granular material down
the hole
Stage 4: The vibrating unit is gradually raised in about 0.3-m lifts and held vibrating for about 30
118
seconds at each lift. This process compacts the soil to the desired unit weight.
6. Field Compaction
Control and Specifications
119
6.1 Control Parameters
• Dry density and water content correlate well with the
engineering properties, and thus they are convenient
construction control parameters.
• Since the objective of compaction is to stabilize soils and

improve their engineering behavior, it is important to keep in
mind the desired engineering properties of the fill, not just its
dry density and water content. This point is often lost in the
earthwork construction control.

6.2 Design-Construct Procedures
• Laboratory tests are conducted on samples of the proposed
borrow materials to define the properties required for design.
• After the earth structure is designed, the compaction
specifications are written. Field compaction control tests are
specified, and the results of these become the standard for
controlling the project.

6.3 Specifications
(1) End-product specifications
•This specification is used for most highways and building
foundation, as long as the contractor is able to obtain the
specified relative compaction , how he obtains it doesn’t matter,
nor does the equipment he uses.
•Care the results only !
•(2) Method specifications
•The type and weight of roller, the number of passes of that
roller, as well as the lift thickness are specified. A maximum
allowable size of material may also be specified.
•It is typically used for large compaction project.
6.4 Relative Compaction (R.C.)
Relative compaction or percent compaction
d filed
R.C.   100%
d max laboratory
Correlation between relative compaction (R.C.) and the relative

density Dr
It is a statistical result
R.C.  80  0.2Dr based on 47 soil
samples.
As Dr = 0, R.C. is 80
Typical required R.C. = 90% ~ 95%

123
124

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CE 6405 SOIL MECHANICS

Most of the man made structures except those

In other words, soil mechanics is the study of

• Transported soil is the soil where the materials

• The natural drainage pattern

• Form and extent of vegetation cover

 Lacustrine soils deposited in quiet lakes

 Marine soil are deposited in sea water,

 Aeolin soils are transported by agency called wind

• Glacial is transported by ice whereas Glaciation is a

• Colluvial soils are deposited through the action of

• (2) Porosity n (given in percent 100%, 65%)

• (3) Degree of Saturation S (given in percent 100%, 65%)

Total volume of voids contains water (Vw )

• The unit weight is frequently

•Consider the buoyant force Ws  Vs   w Ws  (Vt  Vw )   w

(Lambe and Whitman, 1979)

1.Remember the basic definitions of w, e, s, S,

Sieve analysis Hydrometer analysis

Sieve analysis Hydrometer analysis

• Another shape parameter, as the second

D10  0.02 mm (effective size ) Well  graded soil

Grain size distribution

Coarse- Rounded Subrounded

 Important for Subangular

 Note that clay particles are sheet-like.

(Holtz and Kovacs, 1981) 40

The water content, in percentage, required to close a

(Holtz and Kovacs, 1981)

(Holtz and Kavocs, 1981)

• The Atterberg limits are usually correlated with some engineering

Gravel Sand Silt and

300 mm 75 mm No.4 No.200

Coarse-grained soils: Fine-grained soils:

50% NO. 4 NO.200

•Grain size distribution •PL, LL LL>50 LL

Required tests: Sieve analysis

Note: If the measured

(Holtz and Kovacs, 1981)

(Santamarina et al., 2001) 58

• Organic clay or silt( group symbol OL or OH):

• Si4Al4O10(OH)8. Platy shape

Trovey, 1971 ( from

Temperature (100 ºC) 72

Surface related force Surface related forces: van der Waals

Relative sizes of adsorbed water layers on sodium montmorillonite and sodium

Holtz and Kovacs, 1981

Edge-to-face (EF): positively

Face-to-Face (FF) Shifted FF

Lambe and Whitman, 1979

(Lambe and Whitman, 1979)

•Na2Z(s) (Zeolite) + Ca2+(aq)  CaZ(s)+2 Na+(aq)

•As the ion-exchange capacity of Zeolite is saturated, the capacity can be

• One equivalent = 6.021023 electron charges or 96500 Coulombs, which is 1

Holtz and Kovacs, 1981

(Lambe and Whitman, 1979)

Courtesy of U.S. WICK DRAIN, INC.

2.2 General Compaction Methods

•Vibrating hammer (BS) •Falling weight and hammers

•Hand-operated vibration plates

• The proctor test is an impact compaction. A

Higher compacting energy

2.495 kg (9.81m / s 2 )(0.3048 m)(3 layers)(25 blows / layer)