Structure of Blood Vessels

Arteries
Veins
Capillaries
Blood, Tissue Fluid & Lymph
Blood, Tissue Fluid & Lymph
Lymph originates as blood plasma.
Blood plasma of arterial blood is rich in nutrients to
supply cells.
The blood plasma leaves the capillary beds throughout
the body and become tissue fluid.
Tissue fluid is also known as intercellular fluid or
interstitial fluid
1.
Transports:
Dissolved gases (e.g. oxygen, carbon dioxide);
 Waste products of metabolism (e.g. water, urea);
 Hormones;
 Enzymes;
 Nutrients (such as glucose, amino acids, micro-nutrients
(vitamins & minerals), fatty acids, glycerol);
 Plasma proteins (associated with defense, such as blood-
clotting and anti-bodies);

Blood cells (incl. white blood cells 'leucocytes', and red

blood cells 'erythrocytes').
2.Maintains Body Temperature

3.Controls pH
The pH of blood must remain in the range 6.8 to 7.4,
otherwise it begins to damage cells.

4.Removes toxins from the body

The kidneys filter all of the blood in the body (approx. 8
pints), 36 times every 24 hours. Toxins removed from the
blood by the kidneys leave the body in the urine.
(Toxins also leave the body in the form of sweat.)

5.Regulation of Body Fluid Electrolytes

Excess salt is removed from the body in urine, which
may contain around 10g salt per day
Composition of Blood
 Blood, Tissue Fluid & Lymph
Tissue fluid delivers the nutrients, oxygen, and hormones
required by the cells.
Tissue fluid collects and carries away some cellular waste
products.
90 percent of the tissue fluid returns to the capillary bed.
Lymph is the 10 percent of the tissue fluid that is left
behind.
The Role of Lymph
As lymph continues to circulate between the cells it
collects waste products left behind including dead
blood cells, pathogens, and cancer cells.

This clear fluid also becomes protein-rich as it absorbs

dissolved protein from between the cells
 The Role of Lymph
Its three principal functions are:

1. to collect and return interstitial fluid, including plasma

protein to the blood, and thus help maintain fluid balance

2. to defend the body against disease by producing

lymphocytes.

3. to absorb lipids from the intestine and transport them to

the blood
 The Role of Lymph
The lymphatic circulation is a drainage system. Its job in
maintaining fluid balance is to:

1. collect excess interstitial fluid and return it to the

blood (approximately 3 litres daily).

2. return plasma proteins to the blood.

Regulation of Blood Pressure
Baro-receptor Reflex-
 Baroreceptors in various organs can detect changes in
arterial pressure, and adjust the mean arterial pressure
by altering both the force and speed of the heart's
contractions, as well as the total peripheral resistance
Renin-Angiotensin System
(RAS)
Renin is produced by specialised cells in the kidney in
response to:

 (1) sympathetic stimulation or (2) a decline in renal

blood flow.

Renin starts an enzymatic chain reaction called the

rennin-angiotensin system.

Renin converts angiotensin, a plasma protein
produced by the liver, to angiotensin I.

In the capillaries of the lungs angiotensin I is then

modified to the hormone angiotensin II,
which stimulates the secretion of aldosterone by the
adrenal cortex at the posterior lobe of the pituitary gland.

Aldosterone stimulates sodium retention and potassium

excretion by the kidneys.

Since sodium is the main ion that determines the amount

of fluid in the blood vessels by osmosis,

aldosterone will increase fluid retention, and indirectly,

arterial pressure.
The combination of aldosterone and ADH restricts salt and
water loss at the kidneys.

Angiotensin II also stimulates thirst and elevates blood

pressure.

This system is generally known for its long-term adjustment

of arterial pressure. This system allows the kidney to
compensate for loss in blood volume or drops in arterial
pressure by activating an endogenous vasoconstrictor known
as angiotensin II
Relationship between Pulse and Heart
Rate
Your pulse is the rate at which your heart beats.
As your heart pumps blood through your body, you
can feel a throbbing in some of the arteries close to the
skin's surface.
The two arteries that are easiest to use for taking your
pulse are the:
-Radial artery
-Carotid Artery
 MYOGLOBIN
Myoglobin is found in muscles.

It has a dissociation curve well to the left of that of

haemoglobin.

Significance - it is an oxygen store.

It only releases oxygen at very low partial pressures of
oxygen

This enables the muscle to continue respiring aerobically

(to continue contracting) at low levels of oxygen.
 FOETAL HAEMOGLOBIN
This has a dissociation curve to left of maternal ("normal"
adult haemoglobin),

Thus it has a higher affinity for oxygen than maternal

haemoglobin,

Significance - foetal haemoglobin can take oxygen from

maternal haemoglobin at the same partial pressure of oxygen
in the placenta
 Factors Affecting Oxygen Saturation
1. 2,4 diphosphoglycerate (DPG) is made in RBCs

it controls the movement of oxygen from the RBCs to body

cells.

The more DPG the more oxygen RBCs can release to body
tissues that need oxygen.
The Bohr Effect
2. pH

 In regions with an increased partial pressure of carbon

dioxide the curve shifts to the right.

 The effect of carbon dioxide is to cause oxygen to be

released from the haemoglobin molecule.

 CO2 is mainly transported as carbonic acid in blood

The Bohr Effect
The hydrogen ions released combine with the
haemoglobin and make it less able to carry oxygen

This causes the curve ti shift to the right

What is the effect of carbon monoxide?

3. Temperature

 Temperature affects the affinity of haemoglobin for

oxygen

 where low temperatures increases this affinity and

shifts the curve to the left and vice versa.
The Bohr Effect
Blood Tests
Haemoglobin - measures the amount of oxygen-
carrying protein in the blood

Complete Blood Count – It provides information

about WBC, RBC, and platelet populations present in a
blood sample.

used to diagnose and monitor anaemia and infection.

Haematocrit – is a measure of the amount of space RBC
occupied in a sample of blood and reported as a percentage

White blood cell count - is a count of the actual number of

white blood cells per volume of blood. Both increases and
decreases can be significant.

Platelet count - is the number of platelets in a given volume

of blood. Both increases and decreases can point to abnormal
conditions of excess bleeding or clotting.
 Mechanisms Regulating Blood Flow
1. Pressure -existence of a pressure gradient causes
movement of the liquid through a system

 Circulatory pressure (CP) is about 100 mmHg which helps

to force blood through the arterioles and into peripheral
capillaries
2. Resistance- This refers to any force that opposes
movement.

3. Vessel Length- Increasing the length of a blood vessel

increases friction as the surface area in contact with blood
increases.

4. Vessel Diameter- a reduction in the diameter of the

vessels increases friction, which serves to slow the flow of
blood
5. Viscosity- This resistance to flow is caused by interactions
among molecules and suspended materials in a liquid.

6. Turbulence- High flow rates, irregular surfaces and

sudden changes in vessel diameter upset the smooth flow
of blood creating swirls and eddies
 Factors Influencing Blood Pressure
1. EXERCISE
Regular exercise, along with an active lifestyle, may
decrease blood pressure.

2.NUTRITION
 Research has shown that diet affects the development of
high blood pressure (hypertension).
 Healthy weight management and appropriate intake of salt
(sodium) are both very important.
3. ALCOHOL

 Alcohol is a drug

 Regular over-consumption can raise blood pressure

dramatically, as well as cause an elevation upon
withdrawal.

 Try to limit alcohol to twice a week and drink only 1-2

servings
4. STRESS

 The effects of stress can vary, but long-term, chronic stress

appears to raise blood pressure.

 deep breathing, progressive relaxation, massage and

psychological therapy can help to manage stress and help
to lower stress-induced blood pressure elevations.
5. SMOKING

 Smoking causes peripheral vascular disease (narrowing of

the vessels that carry blood to the legs and arms), as well as
hardening of the arteries.

 These conditions clearly can lead to heart disease and

stroke and are contributing factors in high blood pressure.
The Formation of Tissue Fluid
In the capillaries, there are two forces acting on the
movement of water and other aqueous substances:

1. hydrostatic pressure and

2. water potential
The hydrostatic pressure is generated by the pumping force of
the heart. It pushes water out of the capillaries.

The water potential is created due to the inability of large

solutes to pass through the capillary walls.

This buildup of solutes induces osmosis. The water passes from

a high concentration (of water) to a low concentration in an
attempt to reach an equilibrium.

This draws water back into the vessels.

Because the blood in the capillaries is constantly flowing,
equilibrium is never reached.

The balance between the two forces is different at different

points in the capillaries.

At the atrial end of the vessel, the hydrostatic pressure is

greater than the water potential, so the net movement (net
flux) favors water and other solutes being passed into the tissue
fluid.

At the venous end, the water potential is greater, so the net
movement favors substances being passed back into the
capillary.
Why do humans have a higher blood cell count at
higher elevations?
THE
END