Photosynthesis & ATP

Synthesis
PHOTOSYNTHESIS AND THE CHLOROPLAST
 photosynthesis

 Photosynthesis is the manufacture of

carbohydrates from inorganic substances
(carbon dioxide and water) using energy from
light; the light is transformed to chemical
energy.
 Photosynthesis

 Photosynthesis is a complex metabolic pathway – a

series of reactions linked to each other in numerous
steps, many of which are catalysed by enzymes.

 Two stages; Light-dependent stage and Light-

Independent stage.
 photosynthesis

Photosynthesis
6CO2 +6H20  C6H1206 + 6O2
PHOTOSYNTHETIC
ORGANISMS
External Features of the Leaf
 To perform its function, a Leaf must

 Broad

 Thin lamina

 Mid rib,

 Network veins
 To perform its function, a Leaf must

 Contain chlorophyll and other photosynthetic pigments

arranged in such a way that they can absorb light.
 Be able to absorb carbon dioxide and dispose of oxygen.
 Have water supply and be able export manufactured
carbohydrate to the rest of the plant.
 Leaf structure and function

 The large surface area and thinness of the lamina

allows it to absorb a lot of light.
 The thinness of the lamina minimises the length of
the diffusion pathway for gaseous exchange.
 Arrangement of leaves on the plants helps the plant
to absorb as much light as possible.
 Leaf structure- upper epidermis
 The upper epidermis made of thin, flat transparent
cells which allows light through to the mesophyll
cells below where photosynthesis occurs.
 Waxy transparent cuticle, provides a watertight
layer preventing water loss other than through the
stomata.
 Leaf structure- lower epidermis

 The lower epidermis is similar to the upper

except that most mesophytes have many
stomata in the lower epidermis.

 Stomata- pores in the epidermis through which

diffusion of gases occurs.
 Guard cells

 Each stoma is bounded by two sausage-

shaped guard cells.
 Changes in the turgidity of these guard cells
cause them to change shape so that they
open and close the pore.

 When guard cells gain water, the pore

opens, as they lose water it closes.
 Guard cells

 Guard cells gain and lose water by osmosis.

 A decrease in water potential is needed
before water can enter the cells by
Osmosis.
 This is achieved by the active removal of
hydrogen ions, using energy from ATP and
then intake potassium ions ( indirect active
transport).
Guard cells
Guard cells
 LEAF INTERNAL STRUCTURE

A typical mesophyll cell has 30 – 40 chloroplasts.

 Palisade mesophyll cells

 The palisade mesophyll is the main site of

photosynthesis, as there are more chloroplasts
per cell than in the spongy mesophyll.
Adaptations of Palisade cells for light absorption

 Long cylindrical cells arranged at right-angles to

the upper epidermis.

 This reduces the number of light absorbing cross

walls in the upper part of the leaf so that as much
light as possible can reach the chloroplast.
Adaptations of Palisade cells for light absorption

 Cells have a large vacuole with a thin

peripheral layer of cytoplasm.

 This restricts the chloroplasts to a layer near

the outside of the cell where light can reach
them most easily.
Adaptations of Palisade cells for light absorption

 The chloroplasts can be moved within the

cells, to absorb the most light or to protect
the chloroplast from excessive light
intensities.
Adaptations of Palisade cells for gaseous exchange

 The cylindrical cells pack together with long

narrow air spaces between them,
 This gives a large surface area of contact between
the cell and air.
 Cell walls are thin so gases can diffuse through
them easily
 Spongy mesophyll

 Mainly adapted as a surface for the exchange of

carbon dioxide and oxygen.

 Also contains chloroplasts but in smaller

numbers than in palisade cells.
 Spongy mesophyll

 Photosynthesis only occurs in the spongy

mesophyll cells at high light intensities.

 The irregular packing of cells and large air

spaces produced provide a large surface area of
moist cell wall for gaseous exchange.
 The veins in the leaf help to support the large
surface area of the leaf.
 They contain xylem, which brings in water
necessary for photosynthesis and cell turgor, and
phloem, which takes the products of photosynthesis
to other parts of the plant.
STRUCTURE OF THE
CHLOROPLAST
and function
 Chloroplast structure and function

 Photosynthesis takes place inside chloroplasts

within cells of leaves and often the stems of
some plants.

 Each cell in a photosynthesising tissue may have

ten or even 100 chloroplasts inside it.
 Chloroplast structure and function

 A chloroplast is surrounded by two membranes

forming an envelope.

 Inside the chloroplast, more membranes are

arranged to form lamellae which encloses fluid
filled sacs are called thylakoids.
 Chloroplast structure and function

 In some parts of the chloroplast, the thylakoids

are stacked up in sacs called grana.

 The background material inside the chloroplast

is called the stroma.
 Chloroplast structure and function

 Embedded tightly in the membranes inside the

chloroplast are several different kinds of
photosynthetic pigments that absorb energy from
certain wavelengths of light.
 The most abundant pigment is chlorophyll
( chlorophyll a and chlorophyll b)
Structure of the Chloroplast
 Chloroplast structure and function

 the stacked membranes have a large surface area

and so their photosynthetic pigments can capture
light very efficiently.
 Transformation of light energy into chemical energy
is carried out by other chemicals in the membranes
associated with the photosynthetic pigments.
 STRUCTURE OF THE
CHLOROPLAST

chloroplast
(2 – 4 µm by 4 – 7 µm)

stroma granum Intermembrane space

Inner membrane
Where is all this happening?
 Structure of the Chloroplast
 Thylakoid: membranous system
within the chloroplast (site of
light reactions). Segregates the
chloroplast into thylakoid space
and stroma.
 Grana stacks of thylakoids in a
chloroplast
 Stroma: region of fluid between
the thylakoids and inner
membrane where Calvin Cycle
occurs
 Why have all of these different
pigments?
RESULTS Chloro-
phyll a
Chlorophyll b

Carotenoids

400 500 600 700

(a) Absorption spectra

Wavelength of light (nm)

 LIGHT RAYS AND PIGMENTS
• Once light meets matter it may be reflected, transmitted or
absorbed.

• The colour seen when a pigment is illuminated with white light is

the colour most reflected or transmitted.
• The colours absorbed is what is used in photosynthesis.

• Different pigments absorb light of different wavelengths – once

absorbed they disappear.
 LIGHT RAYS AND PIGMENTS
• Chlorophyll absorbs red and blue light, but only
small amount of green light. We therefore see
the green light that is reflected from it.

• Cartenoids absorb blue and green light, but it do

not absorb yellow or red. They therefore appear
yellow, orange or red.
ABSORPTION SPECTRA OF PHOTOSYNTHETIC PIGMENTS

[violet blue (420 – 440 nm), red orange (660 – 680 nm)]

[blue (450 – 475 nm)]

[violet – blue green

(450 – 500 nm)]

http://www.uic.edu/classes/bios/bios100/lecturesf04am/absorption-spectrum.jpg
 Overview of Photosynthesis
 Three events of photosynthesis
1.Light-capturing events
 The pigment chlorophyll absorbs certain wavelengths of light
to excite electrons

2.Light-dependent reactions
 Excited
electrons enter an ETC to make ATP and NADPH.
 NADPH has a the same function and similar structure to
NADH - NADP+ is reduced to NADPH

3.Light-independent reactions
 ATP and NADPH from the light reactions are used to reduce
7- carbon dioxide to make glucose.
The light-dependent stage

 This stage takes place on the thylakoids

inside the chloroplast.
 It involves the absorption of light energy by
chlorophyll, and the use of that energy and
the products from splitting water to make
ATP and reduces NADP (NADPH).
 Photosystems

 Pigment molecules in the thylakoid membrane

is arranged in photosystems.
 A photosystem consists of :
 Light harvesting complexes- which consist of
pigment molecules bound to particular proteins and
A reaction centre- a protein complex that
includes chlorophyll a molecules and a primary
electron acceptor
 PHOTOSYSTEMS
 Two types of photosystems:

 PSI- Photosystem I, involves in both cyclic and

non- cyclic photophosphorylation.

 PSII- Photosystem II, involves in only non-cyclic

photophosphorylation.

• PSII and PSI: PSII’s special chl a absorbs light

best at 680 nm (P680) while PSI’s special chl a
absorption peak is at 700 nm (P700)
44
(Taken from Biology 7th Edition by Campbell and Reece)
LIGHT HARVESTING BY PHOTOSYSTEM
 Photophosphorylation

 Phosphorylation- means ‘ the addition of a

phosphate group to a molecule.

 Photophosphorylation- means ‘phosphorylation

using light’.
 Photophosphorylation

 Refers to the production of ATP, by combining

a phosphate group with ADP, using energy that
originally came from light:

 ADP + phosphate ATP

 Photophosphorylation

 Photophosphorylation happens when an

electron is passed along a series of electron
carriers forming an electron transport chain
in the thylakoid membranes.
 Photophosphorylation

 The electron starts off with a lot of energy,

and it gradually loses some of it as it moves
from one carrier to the next.
 The energy is used to cause a phosphate group
to react with ADP forming ATP.
 Cyclic Photophosphorylation

 Involves only PSI.

 Results in the formation of ATP but not
reduced NADP.
 Cyclic Photophosphorylation

 Light is absorbed by PSI and the energy is

passed on to electrons in the chlorophyll a
molecules at the reaction centre.
 One of the electrons becomes excited and
leaves the chlorophyll a molecule.
 Cyclic Photophosphorylation

 The electron is then passed along the chain of

electron carriers.
 The energy from the electron is used to make
ATP
 Having lost energy, the electron returns to
chlorophyll a in PSI.
 Non-Cyclic Photophosphorylation

 Involves both PSI & PSII.

 Results in the formation of ATP and reduced
NADP.
 Non-Cyclic Photophosphorylation

 In non- cyclic Photophosphorylation, electrons

travels from PSII to PSI via the electron
transport chain.
 Light hitting either PSI or PSII causes electrons
to be emitted
 As electrons falls down the gradient of PSII,
the energy is used to produced ATP by
phosphorylation.
 Non-Cyclic Photophosphorylation

 The phosphorylation of ADP to ATP involves

the movement of hydrogen ions across the
thylakoid membrane.

 The electron which lost energy however, goes

to PSI (to replace the electron that it lost) and
not PSII.
 Non-Cyclic Photophosphorylation
Theelectrons emitted from PSI are used to
make reduce NADP (NADPH) and not ATP.

Hydrogen ions are required for this to happen

and these come from the photolysis of water
which happens when light hits PSII.
2H2O 4H+ + 4e- + 02
 Non-Cyclic Photophosphorylation
The hydrogen ions are taken up by NADP and
forms reduced NADP (NADPH)

The electrons replace the ones that were

emitted from PSII when light hits it.

Oxygen then diffuses out of the leaf as an

excretory product.
Figure 7_07
 NON-CYCLIC ELECTRON FLOW

NON-CYCLIC ELECTRON FLOW

(Taken from Biology 7th Edition by Campbell and Reece)

CYCLIC ELECTRON FLOW
The light-independent stage

 This stage takes place in the stroma of the

chloroplast.
 It involves the production of carbohydrates
from carbon dioxide with the aid of
reduced NADP and ATP.
 Cyclic series of reactions called the Calvin
cycle.
 Calvin cycle
• Occurs in the stroma of chloroplasts.
• Cyclic series of events that makes up the light
independent stage of photosynthesis and
produces triose phosphate( sugar) using carbon
dioxide, ATP and NADP.

•
 Calvin Cycle

The Calvin cycle has three phases

Carbon fixation
Reduction
Regeneration of the CO2 acceptor
Calvin Cycle
Phase 1- Carbon fixation
1 A molecule of CO2 is attached to a
5C sugar (ribulose bisphosphate or
RuBP) by the action of the enzyme
RuBP carboxylase (Rubisco).

 An unstable 6C sugar is formed

but immediately it splits to form
two molecules of a 3-
phosphoglycerate or glycerate 3-
phosphate(GP) ( 3C sugar).
Phase 2- Reduction
 Each molecule of 3-
phosphoglycerate receives and
additional P from ATP and becomes
1,3-biphosphoglycerate.

 1,3-biphosphoglycerate then
receives a pair of electrons from
NADPH to become for a 3- C sugar
glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate(
G3P)
 Six glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate(
G3P) molecules are produced for
every 3 carbon dioxide molecules
incorporated in the cycle.

 One of these G3P molecules

exists the cycle and will be used
to produce the 6-C glucose and
the other five are recycled to
regenerate RuBP.
Phase 3- Regeneration of
the CO2 acceptor ( RuBP)
 The five molecules of
Glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate (
G3P) is converted to three
molecules of RuBP through a series
of reactions that involve the
phosphorylation of the molecule by
ATP
 Glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate: The
Product of Photosynthesis
 Glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate can
be used for many things:
 Used to make glucose
 Used to recycle ribulose for the
Calvin cycle
 Used to make the sugars needed to
build ATP, DNA and RNA
 Can be converted into lipids
 Can be converted into amino acids to
make proteins

7- Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
 The Calvin Cycle

7- Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
THE CALVIN
CYCLE
The Importance of Photosynthesis: A
Review A review of photosynthesis


Light reaction Calvin cycle

H 2O CO2

Light
NADP+
ADP
+P1
RuBP 3-Phosphoglycerate
Photosystem II
Electron transport chain
Photosystem I
ATP G3P
NADPH Starch
(storage)
Amino acids
Fatty acids
Chloroplast
O2 Sucrose (export)

Light reactions: Calvin cycle reactions:

• Are carried out by molecules in the • Take place in the stroma
thylakoid membranes • Use ATP and NADPH to convert
• Convert light energy to the chemical CO2 to the sugar G3P
energy of ATP and NADPH • Return ADP, inorganic phosphate, and
• Split H2O and release O2 to the NADP+ to the light reactions
Figure 10.21 atmosphere
Photosynthesis
 Fig. 10-5-4

H2O CO2

Light

NADP+
ADP
+ P
i
Calvin
Light Cycle
Reactions

ATP

NADPH

Chloroplast

O2 [CH2O]
(sugar)
Factors affecting the
rate of photosynthesis
Light intensity
Light intensity
Carbon dioxide concentration
Temperature