BASIC ELECTRICITY AND

MAGNETISM
electricity

a phenomenon associated
with the presence and
motion of electrons and
other charged particles
electric current

the directional motion

of electrons
electrostatics

deals with stationary

charged particles
magnetism
electromagnetism
ELECTRICITY
atomic structure
Electrons are present in every
material and its motions are
usually illustrated together with
protons and neutrons within an
atomic structure.
John Joseph Thomson (1856-1940)
discovered the electron in 1897,
which he initially called
corpuscles, meaning a living cell
elementary particles
Electrons – negatively charged
particles
Protons – positively charged
particles
Neutrons – electrically neutral (no
charge)

Mass of proton – 1836 times the

mass of electron
elementary particles
Particle Charge, C Mass, kg Charge to
mass ratio,
C/kg
Electron

Proton

Neutron none N/A

structure of matter
The elementary particles are
basic form of matter and as they
combine they form another
matter, the atom; and as atoms
combine forms yet another
different matter.
structure of matter
Matter – anything in the universe
that has mass, occupies space,
and is convertible to energy
Atom – a substance consisting of
the basic particles, electrons,
protons, and neutrons. As atoms
combine they form either an
element or a compound
structure of matter
Element – substance consisting
of atoms of only one kind. This is
considered as the elementary
(irreducible) chemical identity of
materials
Compound – a combination of
two or more different atoms or
elements. Most of the insulators
are compound
structure of matter
Molecule – the smallest part of a
compound or material that retains
all the properties of the compound
Atomic number – represents the
number of protons in the nucleus
of an atom which in a neutral
atom equals the number of
electrons outside the nucleus.
This number determines the place
of the element in the periodic
table of elements
Niel Henrik David Bohr (1885-1962)
the Danish physicist who
developed a new model of atomic
structure called the Bohr Atomic
Model in 1913.
Bohr atomic model
The maximum number of
electrons (e-) that can occupy a
given shell or the nth shell can be
approximated by:

where: n is the nth shell

Bohr atomic model
Energy level – the farther the
electron from the nucleus, the
higher its energy level
Valence shell – the outermost
shell or the last shell. This shell or
orbit is filled with the remaining
electrons.
Bohr atomic model
Valence electrons – electrons that
occupies the valence shell or the
last shell
Free electrons – originally
valence electrons. As they gain
enough energy they escape from
the valence shell and become
free.
electrical classifications of material
The number of valence electrons
is a common indication that tells
us the electrical characteristics of
a material
conductor
– material with less than four
valence electrons; allows
electrical current to flow easily
because they have more free
electrons
insulator
– material with more than four
valence electrons; will not allow
electrical current to flow easily
because they have very few or
even no free electrons
semiconductor
– with exactly four valence
electrons; have electrical
characteristics in between
conductors and insulators
energy bands
Before a valence electron can
escape from its shell and
becomes free, it must gain energy
of at least equal to the energy
gap.
energy gap
– the energy difference between
the valence band and conduction
band. Its unit is the electron volt
(eV)
valence band
– the region where the valence
shell and valence electrons are
occupying. It is the highest energy
level before conduction band
conduction band
– the region where free electrons
are said to be present. Electrons
at this band have a higher energy
level than those electrons at the
valence band.
forbidden band
– the region in an atom where no
electrons exist. It is in between
two allowed bands, such as
between valence and conduction
bands.
electron volt
– a unit of energy equal to the
energy gained by an electron in
passing from a point of low
potential to a point one volt higher
in potential
energy gap of different materials
Means that the valence electrons
can easily become free. This
explains why conductors have the
most number of free electrons
and can easily support electric
current flow
electric charge (Q)
– a fundamental property of
matter and is influenced by
elementary particles such as
electrons and protons
kinds of electric charges
Positive charge – carried by
protons
Negative charge – carried by
electrons
coulomb (C)
– unit of electric charge; named
after the French physicist,
Charles Augustin de Coulomb
(1736-1806)
conservation of charge
– the total or net electric charge in
an isolated system always
remains constant
conservation of charge-energy
– electric charge is neither
created nor destroyed but is
transferred from one body to
another
charged atom and charged body
Basically, atoms are electrically
neutral (balance) which means
the number of negatively charged
electrons and the number of
positively charged protons are
equal. This is uncharged atom
and the material whose atoms are
uncharged is called uncharged
body.
ions
Anion – negatively charged ion
Cation – positively charged ion
cation
Atom that loses electron lacks
negative charge and the atom
becomes positively charged ion,
cation.

Electropositive elements –
elements that give up electrons in
chemical reactions to produce
positive ions. These elements are
metallic in nature.
anion
Atom that gains electron will have
more negative charge and the
atom becomes negatively charge
ion, anion.

Electronegative elements –
elements that accept electrons in
chemical reactions to produce
negative ions. These elements
are nonmetallic in nature.
electric field and electric force
When the body is electrically
charged, it is said to have electric
field in its surroundings. This field
interacts with other charged
bodies and will produce an
electric force that may cause
them to move.
electric field and electric force
Electric field – the area or region
surrounding an electrically
charged particle or body
Electric force – the force
produced due to the electric field
of a charged particle or body
electrical potential
– the ability of a charged body to
do work on charged particles
such as electrons.

The fact that charged bodies tend

to move charged particles, it is
said to have a capacity to do work
or it has a potential to do work.
This is also called electrical
potential energy.
electrical potential
Electrical potential difference –
the difference between the
capacities (potentials) of two
charges to do work

Volt – the unit of potential

difference. A potential of one volt
has the capacity to do one joule
of work in moving one coulomb of
charge; named after the Italian
physicist, Alessandro Volta (1745-
1827) in 1881.
electrical potential
Voltage – another name of
potential difference expressed in
volts
Electromotive force (EMF) – the
electrical force that moves the
charged particles such as
electrons (electron moving force).
The term emf is used
interchangeably with potential
difference and voltage
Count Volta
Count Alessandro Giuseppe
Antonio Anastasio Volta invented
the voltaic pile, the first electric
cell, in 1796. Using his voltaic
pile, he produced a continuous
electric current for the first time on
earth.
electric current
– any directional movement of
electric charges such as electrons
electric current
Current in gases and liquids

– generally consists of a flow of

positive ions in one direction
together with a flow of negative
ions in the opposite direction
electric current
Current in solids

– consists of the flow of electrons

and is a measure of the quantity
of charge passing any point of the
wire per unit of time
ampere
– the unit of electric current.
Current of one ampere is equal to
one coulomb of charge flows a
given point in one second; named
after French physicist and
mathematician Andre M. Ampere
(1775-1836)
current density
– the current per unit cross-
sectional area
current
Direct current – charges flow in
one direction only
Alternating current – the motion of
electric charges is periodically
reversed
Conventional current – the
assumption which considered the
flow of charge from positive to
negative. This is opposite to the
actual charge flow negative to
positive
material resistance
– the ability of a material to
oppose or block the flow of
charge or current
material resistance
Basically, the resistance of a
material depends on its
dimensions and type.

where: R – resistance
ρ – resistivity in Ω-cm or Ω-m
L – length in cm or m
A – cross-sectional area in cm2 or
m2
temperature effect
Change in resistance due to
change in temperature

or
temperature effect
Resistance at new temperature
or
where:
– the change in resistance due to
temperature change
– the initial resistance at
temperature
– the final resistance at
temperature
– the initial temperature
– the final temperature
– the temperature-resistance
coefficient or temperature
coefficient of resistance at
electrostatics
– deals with phenomena due to
attractions or repulsions of
electric charges that are not
moving.
properties of electric force
According to Charles Augustin de
Coulomb (1736-1806) French
physicist, the electric force for
charges at rest has the following
properties:

1. The size of the force of

attraction or repulsion between
two charges is directly
proportional to the value of each
charge (Coulomb’s first law of
electrostatics)
properties of electric force
2. The size of the force varies
inversely as the square of the
distance between the two
charges (Coulomb’s second law
of electrostatics)
3. The attraction or repulsion acts
along the line between the two
charges
4. Like charges repel each other,
unlike charges attract. Thus, two
negative charges repel one
another, while a positive charge
attracts a negative attracts a
negative charge
Coulomb’s law
Coulomb’s law or Law of
Electrostatics
The force F between two
electrical charges is directly
proportional to the product of the
charges and inversely
proportional to the square of the
distance between them. This is
the sum of Coulomb’s first and
second laws.
Coulomb’s law
The unit of force F depends on
the units of other factors. The
table below gives the common
units used.

Force, F Charge, Q Distance, r Constant, k

Newton Coulomb, C Meter
(SI)

Dyne Electrostatic cm 1 (in vacuum)

(cgs) unit, esu or
statcoulomb
Coulomb’s law

– permittivity
– free space permittivity
– relative permittivity
(permittivity of materials)
Coulomb’s law
Other expression of constant
k, (SI)

where:

(speed of light)
quick facts
When two or more charges exert
forces simultaneously on another
charge, the total force acting on
that charge is the vector sum of
the individual forces exerted by
each charge. This is known as
the principle of superposition.
quick facts
Electric charges should be at rest
during the calculation of forces.
When the charges are in motion
the forces are different.
quick facts
In using Coulomb’s law, there
should be no matter in between
charges, the matter will cause an
erroneous result.
quick facts
The force F will cause another
charged particle to move and is
therefore can be considered as
electromotive force.

The force F is a vector quantity.

electric field and electric force
Electric field – the region of
space around an electrically
charged body; exerts a force on
another charged body and is
usually illustrated by imaginary
lines called electric field lines of
force or simply lines of force.
electric field and electric force
The strength of an electric field E
at any point may be defined as
the electric force F exerted per
unit positive electric charge Q at
that point.
electric field and electric force
The concept of representing the
electric field with lines was
introduced by Michael Faraday
(1791-1867), an English chemist
and physicist.
determination of electric field
To detect the presence of electric
field at a particular region,
another charged body, usually a
test charge (q) is placed and if
the test charge experiences a
force of electrical origin, then an
electric field is present at that
region.
determination of electric field
The electric field E at that region
causes a force F on the test
charge q with a magnitude that
can be calculated using

Take note that the electric field E

is not dependent of the test
charge q. If the test charge q is
doubled, the resultant force F is
also doubled, but the electric
field E remains the same.
quick facts
Every electrically charged body
will produce an electric field.
quick facts
Electric field at any point in the
region is directly proportional to
the charge and inversely to the
square of the distance. When
charge is static, the field
produced is known as
electrostatic field.
quick facts
Electric field is a vector quantity
but not a single vector, it is an
infinite set of vector quantities
called vector field.
quick facts
The direction of field lines
depends on the charge, and it is
directed outward from a positive
charge and inward to a negative
charge.
quick facts
The number of field lines or line
density is directly proportional to
the electric field; more lines
should be drawn for strong fields
and less for weak fields.
quick facts
Field lines never intersect and in
a uniform field lines are straight,
parallel, and uniformly or equally
spaced.
quick facts
Electric field will bring about a
force to any other charged body
or particle within its vicinity. The
force direction is the same as
with the direction of field lines.
Gauss’s law
– formulated by Karl Friedrich
Gauss (1777-1855), a German
mathematician
– provide a means in determining
the electric field or electric field
intensity as produced by charge
(point or distributed)
– more useful in distributed
charges especially if it is
symmetrically distributed in a
closed system, such as charges
in a long wire or in a relatively
infinite plane
Gauss’s law
Gauss’s Law states that the
summation of the normal
component of the electric field
displacement E┴ over any closed
surface is directly proportional to
electric charge within the
surface. Mathematically,
where:
– the electric field component
perpendicular or normal to a small
element area
– the small element area where
the field lines pass
– the charge producing the field
– the permittivity of free space
(
)
Gauss’s law
In Gauss’s Law equation, the
quantity

is called the Gaussian sum and

is also known as the electric flux
through the surface and is
denoted by Ψ (Psi)
Gauss’s law
From the previous equation,
Gauss’s law can also be stated
as:
For any closed system, the total
electric flux passing through that
surface is directly proportional to
the total charge inside the
system.
Mathematically,
electric flux density

where:
– the flux density in coulomb per
meter
– the electric flux in coulomb
– the area perpendicular to the
flux in m2
– the permittivity of free space
– the relative permittivity, = 1 (for
free space)
quick facts
Electric field intensity E produced
by a point charge can be found
by Coulomb’s law.
quick facts
Electric field intensity E produced
by a distributed charge can be
found by Gauss’s law.
quick facts
The area to be considered in
using Gauss’s law should be the
one where the electric field is
perpendicular. This is called the
Gaussian surface.
quick facts
When the electric field E is
parallel to the surface at every
point then is said to be zero.
quick facts
The electric lines of force in an
electric field is also called
electric flux.
quick facts
Electric flux density is the
number of field lines that crosses
a unit area or the lines of force
per unit area.
electrical potential energy (U)

where:
U – a unit of joules
MAGNETISM
magnetism
The property of a device or
material to attract bodies of iron
and other magnetic materials or
magnet.
electromagnetism
Magnetism due to electric
charges that are moving such as
the flow of electric current.
electromagnetic induction
The production of electric current,
potential or voltage due to
magnetism.
magnetic field due to moving electric charge

where:
– the permeability of free
space;
– the velocity of the charge Q
in m/s
– the angle between the
direction of and the point P,
the direction of is into the
plane
magnetic force due to an electric charge
atomic theory of magnetism
Magnetism is the effect of moving
charged particles such as motion
in an atom.

In atoms of most elements, the

magnetic forces produced by its
charged particles, electrons and
protons cancel each other and
produce a very small or zero net
magnetic force. They are called
nonmagnetic materials.
atomic theory of magnetism
The common elements whose
magnetic forces do not cancel
completely and is externally
significant are iron, nickel and
cobalt and are called magnetic
materials.
atomic theory of magnetism
In iron, nickel and cobalt, the
molecules arrange themselves
into magnetic entities called
domains.

Domains are completely

magnetized.
three domain directions of magnetization
Where iron, nickel or cobalt is
exposed to a magnetic field of
force, or magnetizing force (H), its
domains will align in three
possible directions.
three domain directions of magnetization
Easy – the domains direction of
alignment when exposed to a
weak magnetic field of force.

Semi-hard – the domains

direction of alignment when
exposed to a stronger magnetic
field of force.

Hard – the domains direction of

alignment when exposed to a
very strong magnetic field of force
which causes saturation.
saturation
the situation where any increase
in the amount of the magnetizing
force will have very little magnetic
effect of the material
magnetic field (B)
the space around a magnetic pole
or magnetized body. This field
causes other materials to become
magnetized or at least exerts a
force on moving electric charge
magnetizing force (H)
the intensity of the magnetic field
that causes a material to become
magnetized or that causes the
magnetic domains in a material to
align and become magnetized

also called magnetic field

intensity, field intensity, magnetic
intensity or magnetic field
strength
magnetization curve (B-H curve)
The B-H curve depicts the ability
of a material to accept, allow or
set-up a magnetic field as it is
subjected to a magnetizing force.
permeability of materials
In the absence of a B-H curve of
a material, its ability to accept ,
allow or set up a magnetic field is
described by a numerical value
called permeability, of a
material, which is the ratio of the
magnetic field B to the
magnetizing force H.
relative permeability
the ratio of the permeability of
material to the permeability of
vacuum or air

where:
– the permeability of vacuum
or air, also called free space
permeability, equals to
magnetic materials compared
Ferromagnetic and Paramagnetic Diamagnetic
ferromagnetic

Very strong attractive Very low attractive effect Very low repellent effect
effect (domains easily (domains easily align with (domains turns away with
align with the magnetizing the magnetizing force H) the magnetizing force H)
force H)

With relative permeability With relative permeability With relative permeability

very much greater than 1 slightly greater than 1 slightly less than 1

Common materials: iron, Common materials: Common materials:

nickel, cobalt, ALNICO, aluminum, chromium, bismuth, antimony,
permalloys, ferrites, and manganese, platinum, copper, silver, gold, zinc,
magnetic oxides and carbon and mercury
ferromagnetic and ferrimagnetic
Ferromagnetic Ferrimagnetic

In ferromagnetism all domains align in In ferrimagnetism some domain are

parallel anti-parallel

Common materials are mostly Common materials are mostly

conductors: iron, nickel, cobalt, insulators: ferrites and other magnetic
ALNICO, permalloys, and steel oxides that are used as core materials
including the powered iron core used in coils operating at microwave
in some radio frequency coil. frequency.
types of magnets
Magnets are made of
ferromagnetic or ferrimagnetic
materials.
types of magnets
Natural magnets – a natural
material that exhibits permanent
magnetism such as lodestone or
magnetite

Artificial magnets – produce by

exposing or subjecting a magnetic
material into magnetizing force.
There are two types of artificial
magnets.
types of artificial magnets
Permanent artificial magnets or
permanent magnets

Temporary artificial magnets or

temporary magnets
some properties of artificial magnets
Permanent
Made of hard magnetic material
Hard to demagnetized; requires higher
coercive force
With high retentivity
With higher residual magnetism
With higher hysteresis
Magnetic domain alignment is well held
even if the demagnetizing force is
removed. They won’t easily roll back.
Other materials: cobalt steel, nickel-
aluminum steels, and other special steels,
hardened steels, or cast iron. Also ticonal
(titanium, cobalt, nickel, aluminum)
Used in meters, headphones,
loudspeakers, radar transmitting tubes
Temporary
Made of soft magnetic material
Easy to demagnetized; requires lower
coercive force
With low retentivity
With lower residual magnetism
With lower hysteresis
Magnetic domains are easily rolled back
when the magnetizing force is removed.
Other materials: soft iron, pure iron and
iron oxides such as manganese ferrite.
Insulators are used for magnetic cores in
many applications; these are called ferrite
cores or ferrites. Hipernik (an alloy of 50%
nickel
Used in transformers, chokes, relays, and
circuit breakers
magnetic hysteresis
The delayed reaction of the
magnetization of a ferromagnetic
material with the change of the
magnetizing force is called
hysteresis.
quick facts
When a ferromagnetic material is
completely demagnetized, it
means that there is no magnetic
field (B=0) within its
surroundings.
quick facts
When magnetizing force H is
applied into a demagnetized
ferromagnetic material, magnetic
field or flux density B rises. As H
is continuously increased, B also
increases until the material
saturates.
quick facts
When saturation is reached,
further increase of H will have
very little increase in B.
Practically this is the point of
maximum flux density or
magnetic field.
quick facts
From saturation, when the
magnetizing force is decreased
until H=0, flux density B also
decreases but it will not drop to
zero as H drops to zero. There
will be some magnetic field left
even if the magnetizing force is
zero.
quick facts
The magnetic field or flux density
B left after the removal of the
magnetizing force (H=0) is called
remanence or residual
magnetism.
quick facts
To completely demagnetize the
material, the residual magnetism
must be counteracted by
opposite magnetizing force. The
amount of force that can bring
residual magnetism to zero is
called the coercive force.
quick facts
A material with higher residual
magnetism is said to have good
retentivity or remanence, the
ability to retain magnetism when
magnetizing force is removed.
quick facts
Permanent magnets are
constructed from materials with
good retentivity, while temporary
magnets with low retentivity.
hysteresis loop
When a ferromagnetic material is
subjected to a magnetizing force
created by an alternating
current, the B-H curve when
plotted will form a close loop
called hysteresis loop.
quick facts
All ferromagnetic materials have
hysteresis loops, some small and
some wide.
quick facts
Hysteresis loops provide
information regarding the
materials saturation, coercive
force, and residual magnetism or
retentivity. But more importantly,
the hysteresis loops provide
information about hysteresis
loss.
magnetic hysteresis loop
lagging of the magnetization of a
ferromagnetic material such as
iron, behind variations of the
magnetizing field
electromagnetism
Magnetic field and force of a long
straight conductor
The magnetic field B at a
distance r from a long straight
conductor carrying a current I
can be calculated using the
equations:
where:
B – flux density
I – current (amperes)
r – distance from the wire
F – force (Newton)
L – length of conductor (meter)
force between two current-carrying conductors
Two parallel wires each carrying
a current exerts a magnetic force
on each other. The force is
attractive if the currents are in
the same direction and
repulsive if they are in opposite
directions.
force between two current-carrying
conductors
The force per unit length can be
calculated using:

where:
F – force (Newton)
I1, I2 – currents in the two wires
(ampere)
r – distance between the two
wires (meter)
L – length of the wires (meter)
magnetic field of a current-carrying loop

The equation above is for a

single loop. For a coil with N
loops, and if the loops are closely
spaced and all have the same
radius,

At the center of N circular loops

magnetic field of a solenoid
When a coil has so many N
loops, it is considered as a
solenoid. Its magnetic field can
be calculated using:

The equation above is the

general equation of a solenoid. If
r>>L, we get (for an N loop roll)
magnetic field of a toroidal solenoid
Toroidal solenoid is a coil
wound on a form that is shaped
like a donut. Its magnetic field is
mostly confined at the space
enclosed by the windings.
Ideally, there are no magnetic
field outside the windings.
quick facts
Magnetic fields are usually
represented by lines just like
electric field and they are called
magnetic field lines.
quick facts
Magnetic field is the flux per unit
area and is therefore called
magnetic flux density.
quick facts
Magnetic field lines are seldom
called magnetic lines of force
because these lines did not point
the direction of the force on a
charge.
quick facts
The number of lines per unit area
is proportional to the magnitude
of the field B. Its maximum
intensity is at the magnetic
pole.
quick facts
Magnetic field lines are drawn as
if it is travelling from north to
south through the surrounding
medium of a bar magnet.
quick facts
If the fields are produced by an
electric current, the field lines will
have no beginning or an end
point.
quick facts
A uniform magnetic field means a
magnetic field that has the same
magnitude and direction at every
point in a region. A nearly
uniform magnetic field can be
observed in the air gap of an iron
core and inside a solenoid.
magnetic circuit
A closed path to which a
magnetic field represented as
lines of magnetic flux is confined.
magnetic circuit parameters
Magnetomotive force, mmf
– the magnetic force that tends
to set up magnetic flux. This
force is produced due to the
applied electric current (I) in the
coil of N turns.
magnetic circuit parameters
Reluctance ( )
– the opposition offered in a
magnetic circuit to magnetic flux
flow.
magnetic circuit parameters
Magnetic flux ( ) where:
– the lines of force representing
magnetic induction.
– magnetic flux (Weber)
– magnetomotive force, mmf
(ampere-turn)
– number of turns of the coil
(turns)
– electrical current flowing in the
coil (ampere)
– reluctance (1/Henry)