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1
Introduction
Convection describe the energy transfer between a surface
and a fluid moving over the surface.
It includes energy transfer by the bulk motion of fluid
(Advection) and the random motion of fluid particles
(Conduction or in general Diffusion).
The concept of boundary layer is central to the
understanding of convection heat transfer between a
surface and a fluid flowing past it.
When fluid particles make contact with the surface, their
velocity is reduced significantly and as per the no slip
boundary condition, the fluid velocity is zero at the wall.
These particles retard the motion of the particles in the
adjoining fluid layer, which further act to retard the
motion of the particles in the next layer and so on. 2
Velocity Boundary Layer
At a distance y = δ from the surface, the effect becomes
negligible and δ is called boundary layer thickness.
The retardation of fluid motion is associated with the
shear stress τ acting in planes parallel to fluid velocity.
With increasing distance y from the surface, x velocity
component of velocity u must then increase until it
approaches the free stream value u∞ and δ is defined as
the value of y for which u = u∞.
Boundary layer velocity profile refers to the manner in
which u varies with y through the boundary layer.
3
The fluid flow is characterized by two distinct regions- a
thin fluid layer in which the velocity gradient and shear
stresses are large and a region outside the boundary layer
in which the velocity gradient and shear stresses are
negligible.
With increasing distance from the leading edge, the
effects of viscosity penetrate farther into the free stream
and the boundary layer grows with x.
In fluid mechanics its significance is determining the
local friction coefficient
s
Cf
u2 2
For Newtonian fluid
u
s
y y 0
4
Thermal Boundary Layer
When there is fluid flow over a surface, a thermal
boundary must develop if the fluid free stream and
surface temperatures differ.
At the leading edge temperature profile is uniform
T(y)=T∞, however the fluid particles in contact with the
plate achieve thermal equilibrium at the plate temperature
and then exchange energy with the adjoining layers and
temperature gradient develops in the fluid.
With increasing distance y from the surface, temperature
of the fluid approaches the free stream temperature T∞
and δt is defined as the value of y for which Ts T 0.99
Ts T
Non dimensional temperature ratio is required to define the mean
temperature (discussed later) and secondly like velocity, temperature is not
zero at the surface. 5
With increasing distance from the leading edge, the effects
of heat transfer penetrate farther into the free stream and the
thermal boundary layer grows with x.
Local surface heat flux may be obtained using Fourier’s
Law to the fluid at y = 0 as at the surface no fluid motion
and energy transfer by conduction only. T
qs k f
''
q Ts T hdAs
As
9
Turbulent velocity profile is relatively flat due to the
mixing that occurs within the buffer layer and turbulent
region, giving rise to large velocity gradients with in the
viscous sub layer.
Shear stress is larger as compared to laminar flow.
The transition from laminar to turbulent is due to the
triggering mechanism such as small disturbances which
may originate from fluctuations in the free stream or
induced due to surface roughness or minute surface
vibrations.
The onset of turbulence depends
on whether the triggering
mechanism is amplified or
attenuated in the direction of
fluid flow. 10
Temperature gradients in the fluid at y = 0 decrease in the
direction of flow.
Large velocity gradients at y = 0 in turbulent flow
promotes large temperature gradients adjacent to the solid
surface as well as increase in the heat transfer coefficient
across the transition region.
Turbulence induces mixing, which is turn reduces the
importance of conduction in determining the thermal
boundary layer thickness.
Differences in thicknesses of the
velocity and thermal boundary
layers tend to be much smaller
in turbulent than in laminar flow.
11
Convection Transfer Equations
u v 2 u 2 v 2
2
y x x y
14
Boundary Layer Equations
Boundary layer thicknesses are typically very small and the
x direction velocity and temperature must change from their
surface to their free stream values over these very small
distances, therefore gradients normal to the object’s surface
are much larger than along the surface.
2 u 2u 2T 2T
2 and 2
x 2
y x 2
y
Boundary layer is so thin, the x direction pressure gradient
within the boundary layer can be approximated as the free
stream pressure gradient. p dp
x dx
The form of p∞(x) depends on the surface geometry and may
be obtained from separate consideration of flow conditions
in the free stream where shear stresses are negligible. 15
Assuming body forces are negligible and no thermal energy
generation in the fluid.
No change in continuity equation.
Momentum equation
u u p 2u 2u
u v 2 2 X
x y x x y
reduces to
u u 1 dp 2u
u v 2
x y dx y
Left hand side represents the net rate at which x momentum
leaves the control volume due to the fluid motion across its
boundaries and first term on RHS is the net pressure force
and the second term represents the net force due to viscous
shear stresses.
16
Energy Equation
T T 2T 2T
c p u v k 2 2 q
x y x y
u v 2 u 2 v 2
2
y x x y
reduces to
2
T T T u
2
u v 2
x y y c p y
18
Normalized Boundary Layer Equations
L L V V T Ts V 2
where L is the characteristic length and V is the velocity
upstream of the surface.
The dimensional variables in momentum and energy
equations may be written in terms of these dimensionless
expressions for x, y, u, v, p∞
u *
u *
dp *
1 2 *
u
u *
v *
*
x *
y *
dx Re L y *2
T *
T *
1 2 *
T
u *
v *
x *
y *
Re L Pr y *2 20
Similarity parameters are Reynolds and Prandtl numbers.
These parameters are important as they allow to apply
results obtained for a surface experiencing one set of
convective conditions to geometrically similar surfaces
experiencing entirely different conditions.
As long as the similarity parameters and dimensionless
boundary conditions are same for two sets of conditions,
solution for the non dimensional velocity and temperature
will be identical.
Non dimensional boundary conditions
*
u x ,0 0 and
*
u x ,
* u x *
*
V
T T ,0 0
* *
and T x , 1
* *
21
Functional Form of the Solution
Momentum equation suggests that the solution of the
momentum equation will be of the functional form
dp *
u *
dp *
u f x , y , Re L , * and
* * *
f x , Re L , *
*
dx y y* 0
*
dx
Pressure distribution depends on the surface geometry and
may be obtained independently by considering the flow
conditions in the free stream.
Shear stress u V u
*
*
y L y
s
y 0 y* 0
Coefficient of friction
s 2 V u * 2 u *
Cf 2 *
V 2 V L y y* 0 Re L y * y* 0
2
dx y y* 0
*
dx
Heat transfer coefficient
k f T y y 0
h T Ts
Ts T T*
T Ts
k f T Ts T *
h T T Ts T *
Ts T L y *
y L y *
k f T * hL T *
h Nu *
L y *
kf y y* 0
Nu f x* , Re L , Pr For a prescribed geometry