ART & ARCHITECTURE

UNIT-1
About Land
 "Hindu synthesis" started to develop between 500 BCE and 300 CE,following the Vedic
period (1500 BCE to 500 BCE)
About Land
 The Vedas were composed and orally transmitted by speakers of an
Old Indo-Aryan language who had migrated into the
northwestern regions of the Indian subcontinent early in this
period. The associated Vedic culture was tribal and pastoral until
c. 1200 or 1100 BCE and centred in the Punjab. It then spread
eastward to the western Ganges Plain, becoming more
agricultural and settled, while the central Ganges Plain was
dominated by a related but non-Vedic Indo-Aryan culture. The
Vedic period saw the emergence of a hierarchy of social classes and
the coalescence of peoples into Janapada (monarchical state-level
polities).The end of the Vedic period witnessed the rise of
Mahajanapada (large, urbanised states) as well as śramaṇa
movements (including Jainism and Buddhism) which challenged
the Vedic orthodoxy of the Kuru Kingdom
INDUS VALLEY CIVILISATION
 The Indus Valley
Civilisation (IVC), or
Harappan Civilisation,
was a Bronze Age civilisation
(3300–1300 BCE; mature
period 2600–1900 BCE)
mainly in the northwestern
regions of South Asia,
extending from what today
is northeast Afghanistan to
Pakistan and northwest
India. Along with Ancient
Egypt and Mesopotamia, it
was one of three early
cradles of civilisations of the
Old World, and of the three,
the most widespread.
 The Indus Civilisation may
have had a population of
over five million inhabitants.
The inhabitants of the
ancient Indus River valley
developed new techniques
in handicraft (carnelian
products, seal carving) and
metallurgy (copper, bronze,
lead, and tin). The Indus
cities are noted for their
urban planning, baked brick
houses, elaborate drainage
systems, water supply
systems, and clusters of
large non-residential
buildings. Children's toys
were found in the cities,
with few weapons of war,
suggesting peace and
prosperity. Their trade seals,
decorated with animals and
mythical beings, indicate
they conducted thriving
trade with lands as far away
as Sumer in southern
Mesopotamia.
Origins
 Hinduism is a fusion or synthesis of various Indian cultures and traditions.
Among the roots of Hinduism are the historical Vedic religion of Iron Age
India itself already the product of "a composite of the Indo-Aryan and
Harappan cultures and civilizations", but also the Sramana or renouncer
traditions of northeast India and mesolithic and neolithic cultures of India,
such as the religions of the Indus Valley Civilisation Dravidian traditions, and
the local traditions and tribal religions.
 This "Hindu synthesis" emerged after the Vedic period, between 500-
200BCE and c. 300 CE, the beginning of the "Epic and Puranic" c.q.
"Preclassical" period,and incorporated śramaṇic and Buddhist influences and
the emerging bhakti tradition into the Brahmanical fold via the Smriti
literature. From northern India this "Hindu synthesis", and its societal
divisions, spread to southern India and parts of Southeast Asia
Prevedic religions (until c. 1500 BCE)
The Pashupati seal, Indus Valley civilization
The earliest prehistoric religion in India that may have left its traces in Hinduism
comes from mesolithic as observed in the sites such as the rock paintings of
Bhimbetka rock shelters dating to a period of 30,000 BCE or older, as well as
neolithic times. Some of the religious practices can be considered to have
originated in 4000 BCE. Several tribal religions still exist, though their practices
may not resemble those of prehistoric religions.
According to anthropologist Possehl, the Indus Valley Civilization "provides a
logical, if somewhat arbitrary, starting point for some aspects of the later Hindu
tradition". The religion of this period included worship of a Great male god,
which is compared to a proto-Shiva, and probably a Mother Goddess, that may
prefigure Shakti. However these links of deities and practices of the Indus
religion to later-day Hinduism are subject to both political contention and
scholarly dispute
Vedic religion
The Indo-Aryans brought with them their language and religion. The Vedic beliefs and
practices of the pre-classical era were closely related to the hypothesised Proto-Indo-
European religion and the Indo-Iranian religion.
The composition of the Vedic literature began in the 2nd millennium BCE. The oldest
of these Vedic texts is the Rigveda, composed between c. 1500-1200 BCE,though a
wider approximation of c. 1700–1100 BCE has also been given.
The first half of the 1st millennium BCE was a period of great intellectual and social-
cultural ferment in ancient India. New ideas developed both in the Vedic tradition in
the form of the Upanishads, and outside of the Vedic tradition through the Śramaṇa
movements.For example, prior to the birth of the Buddha and the Mahavira, and
related Sramana movements, the Brahmanical tradition had questioned the meaning
and efficacy of Vedic rituals,then internalized and variously reinterpreted the Vedic fire
rituals as ethical concepts such as Truth, Rite, Tranquility or Restraint. The 9th and 8th
centuries BCE witnessed the composition of the earliest Upanishads with such ideas.
Other ancient Principal Upanishads were composed in the centuries that followed,
forming the foundation of classical Hinduism and the Vedanta (conclusion of the Veda)
literature.
EPICS AND PURANAS
 The ancient scriptures of Hinduism are in Sanskrit. These texts are
classified into two: Shruti and Smriti.
 There are four Vedas – Rigveda, Samaveda, Yajurveda and Atharvaveda.
 The most notable of the Smritis ("remembered") are the Hindu
epics and the Puranas. The epics consist of the Mahabharata and the
Ramayana. The Bhagavad Gita is an integral part of the Mahabharata
and one of the most popular sacred texts of Hinduism. It is
sometimes called Gitopanishad, then placed in the Shruti ("heard")
category, being Upanishadic in content.The Puranas, which started
to be composed from c. 300 CE onward, contain extensive
mythologies, and are central in the distribution of common
themes of Hinduism through vivid narratives.
HINDU GODS AND GODDESS
 Hinduism has no central doctrinal authority and many practising
Hindus do not claim to belong to any particular denomination or
tradition. Four major denominations are, however, used in
scholarly studies: Vaishnavism, Shaivism, Shaktism and Smartism.
 Vaishnavism is the devotional religious tradition that worships
Vishnu and his avatars, particularly Krishna and Rama
 Shaivism is the tradition that focuses on Shiva.
 Shaktism focuses on goddess worship of Shakti or Devi as cosmic
mother
 Smartism centers its worship simultaneously on all the major
Hindu deities: Shiva, Vishnu, Shakti, Ganesha, Surya and Skanda.
CREATION,DESTRUCTION AND
REBIRTH
 The Trimūrti "three forms" is the trinity of supreme
divinity in Hinduism in which the cosmic functions of
creation, maintenance, and destruction are personified as a
triad of deities, typically Brahma the creator, Vishnu the
preserver, and Shiva the destroyer, though individual
denominations may vary from that particular line-up. When
all three deities of the Trimurti incarnate into a single avatar,
the avatar is known as Dattatreya.
 This cycle of birth, life, death and rebirth is called samsara.
Liberation from samsara through moksha is believed to
ensure lasting happiness and peace.
RITUALS

 Most Hindus observe religious rituals at home.The rituals vary

greatly among regions, villages, and individuals. They are not
mandatory in Hinduism. The nature and place of rituals is an
individual's choice. Some devout Hindus perform daily rituals
such as worshiping at dawn after bathing (usually at a family
shrine, and typically includes lighting a lamp and offering
foodstuffs before the images of deities), recitation from religious
scripts, singing devotional hymns, yoga, meditation, chanting
mantras and others.
 Vedic rituals of fire-oblation (yajna) and chanting of Vedic hymns
are observed on special occasions, such as a Hindu wedding.Other
major life-stage events, such as rituals after death, include the
yajña and chanting of Vedic mantras.
 ROLE OF FINE ARTS
 Sculpture
The first known sculpture in the Indian subcontinent is from the Indus Valley civilization
(3300–1700 BC), found in sites at Mohenjo-daro and Harappa in modern-day
Pakistan.
Chola dynasty-iconic form of Shiva as Nataraja
massive granite carvings – Mahabalipuram
pink sandstone-sculptures of Mathura.
 Wall painting
The tradition and methods of Indian cliff painting gradually evolved throughout many
thousands of years - there are multiple locations found with prehistoric art. The early
caves included overhanging rock decorated with rock-cut art and the use of natural
caves during the Mesolithic period (6000 BCE).
 Jewellery
The Indian subcontinent has the longest continuous legacy of jewellery-making, with a history of over 5,000 years.
Using jewellery as a store of capital remains more common in India than in most modern societies, and gold
appears always to have been strongly preferred for the metal. India and the surrounding areas were important
sources of high-quality gemstones.

Music of India
The music of India includes multiple varieties of classical music, folk music. India's classical music tradition, including
Hindustani music and Carnatic, has a history spanning millennia and developed over several areas. Music in India
began as an integral part of socio-religious life.
Dance in India
Comprises numerous styles of dances, generally classified as classical or folk.As with other aspects of Indian
culture, different forms of dances originated in different parts of India, developed according to the local
traditions and also imbibed elements from other parts of the country.
These have roots in the Sanskrit text Natya Shastra, and the religious performance arts of Hinduism.
 Bharatanatyam
 Kathakali
 Kathak
 Kuchipudi
 Odissi
 Sattriya
 Manipuri
 Mohiniyattam
 Vastu shastra
 Vastu shastra (vāstu śāstra) is a traditional Hindu system of architecture
which literally translates to "science of architecture." These are texts found
on the Indian subcontinent that describe principles of design, layout,
measurements, ground preparation, space arrangement and spatial geometry.
Vastu Shastras incorporate traditional Hindu and in some cases Buddhist
beliefs. The designs are intended to integrate architecture with nature, the
relative functions of various parts of the structure, and ancient beliefs
utilizing geometric patterns (yantra), symmetry and directional alignments.
 Vastu Shastra are the textual part of VastuVidya, the latter being the broader
knowledge about architecture and design theories from ancient India. Vastu
Vidya knowledge is a collection of ideas and concepts, with or without the
support of layout diagrams, that are not rigid. Rather, these ideas and
concepts are models for the organization of space and form within a building
or collection of buildings, based on their functions in relation to each other,
their usage and to the overall fabric of the Vastu. Ancient Vastu Shastra
principles include those for the design of Mandir (Hindu temples), and the
principles for the design and layout of houses, towns, cities, gardens, roads,
water works, shops and other public areas.
 Shilpa Shastras
 Shilpa Shastras literally means the Science of Shilpa (arts and crafts). It is an
ancient umbrella term for numerous Hindu texts that describe arts, crafts, and their
design rules, principles and standards. In the context of temple design, Shilpa
Shastras were manuals for sculpture and Hindu iconography, prescribing among
other things, the proportions of a sculptured figure, composition, principles,
meaning, as well as rules of architecture.
 While Shilpa and Vastu Shastras are related, Shilpa Shastras deal with arts and crafts
such as forming statues, icons, stone murals, painting, carpentry, pottery, jewellery,
dying, textiles and others. Vastu Shastrasdeal with building architecture – building
houses, forts, temples, apartments, village and town layout, etc
 Agama
 The Agamas are a collection of scriptures of several Hindu devotional schools.
The term literally means tradition or "that which has come down", and the
Agama texts describe cosmology, epistemology, philosophical doctrines,
precepts on meditation and practices, four kinds of yoga, mantras, temple
construction, deity worship and ways to attain sixfold desires. These canonical
texts are in Sanskrit and Tamil.
 The three main branches of Agama texts are those of Shaivism (Shiva),
Vaishnavism (Vishnu), Shaktism (Devi). The Agamic traditions are sometimes
called Tantrism, although the term "Tantra" is usually used specifically to refer to
Shakta Agamas. The Agama literature is voluminous, and includes 28 Shaiva
Agamas, 77 Shakta Agamas (also called Tantras), and 108 Vaishnava Agamas (also
called Pancharatra Samhitas), and numerous Upa-Agamas.
 SITE FOR TEMPLE
The appropriate site for a temple, suggest ancient Sanskrit texts, is near water
and gardens, where lotus and flowers bloom, where swans, ducks and other
birds are heard, where animals rest without fear of injury or harm. These
harmonious places were recommended in these texts with the explanation
that such are the places where gods play, and thus the best site for Hindu
temples.
While major Hindu temples are recommended at sangams (confluence of
rivers), river banks, lakes and seashore, Brhat Samhita and Puranas suggest
temples may also be built where a natural source of water is not present.
Here too, they recommend that a pond be built preferably in front or to the
left of the temple with water gardens. If water is neither present naturally
nor by design, water is symbolically present at the consecration of temple or
the deity. Temples may also be built, suggests Visnudharmottara in Part III of
Chapter 93, inside caves and carved stones, on hill tops affording peaceful
views, mountain slopes overlooking beautiful valleys, inside forests and
hermitages, next to gardens, or at the head of a town street.
 Oil Lamp test
Dig a pit of 3’x3’x3’, light four oil lamps inside the same. If all four continues to burn,
the site is prosperous. If any thing less then 3 then the site is considered un-
prosperous. (Science behind this is lamp don't burn in trapped gas zone).
 Soil density test
Dig a pit of 3’x3’x3’, it the excavated soil is refilled, if the pit has excuses soil then the
site is good, if the excavated soil is equal in pit then its fair, if the soil refilled is less
then the site is bad.
 Taste test
Dig a pit, if excavated soil is sweet the site is good. If it is sore and salty the site is unfit
for construction.
 Germination test
Navadhaniyam is soughed, if they germinate healthy then the site is considered good, if
germination is poor the site is considered bad.
(this navadhaniyam test help trace metal content in the soil)
STHALA VRIKSHA
 A Sthala Vriksha is a monumental tree that is
indigenous to every historical Hindu temple. This forms
a prominent feature of Koils, Hindu temples of the
Dravidian style.
 Besides the dominant feature of a temple's architecture
comprising the Gopuram, Vimanam and the sanctum, the
temple tree is also considered holy. Some of the temples
and historical places derive their names from such trees.
 Hinduism and Ecology is a growing subject of interest
and importance of these trees are reiterated by doing
poojas to them,tying sacred thread and bells during days
of religious importance
Sthala Theertha
 Teertha’ means ‘Holy’. It is the holy water given in a temple after all pujas.
Typically, it is the water that was used to bathe the lord, give him/her a hand
wash, feet wash, rinsing of the mouth, etc
There can be three kinds of teerthas -
1. abhisheka teertham (water or a concoction of milk/curds/ghee/honey/tender
coconut water)
2. aaraadhanaa teertham (holy water after doing pooja; this is essentially water
used to give upacharas to the lord).
3. sri paada teertham (typically, holy water after washing the feet of holy
men/saints/acharyas/gurus).

 Temple tanks are wells or reservoirs built as part of the temple complex near Indian
temples. They are called pushkarini, kalyani, kunda, sarovara, tirtha, talab, pukhuri, etc. in
different languages and regions of India. Some tanks are said to cure various diseases and
maladies when bathed in. It is possible that these are cultural remnants of structures such
as the Great Bath of Mohenjo-daro or Dholavira, which was part of the Indus Valley
Civilization. Some are stepwells with many steps at the sides.
Layout of Temple
 A Hindu temple design follows a geometrical design called vastu-purusha-mandala. The
name is a composite Sanskrit word with three of the most important components of the
plan. Mandala means circle, Purusha is universal essence at the core of Hindu tradition,
while Vastu means the dwelling structure. Vastupurushamandala is a yantraThe design lays
out a Hindu temple in a symmetrical, self-repeating structure derived from central
beliefs, myths, cardinality and mathematical principles.
 The four cardinal directions help create the axis of a Hindu temple, around which is
formed a perfect square in the space available. The circle of mandala circumscribes the
square. The square is considered divine for its perfection and as a symbolic product of
knowledge and human thought, while circle is considered earthly, human and observed in
everyday life (moon, sun, horizon, water drop, rainbow). Each supports the other.The
square is divided into perfect 64 (or in some cases 81) sub-squares called padas.Each pada
is conceptually assigned to a symbolic element, sometimes in the form of a deity. The
central square(s) of the 64 or 81 grid is dedicated to the Brahman (not to be confused
with Brahmin), and are called Brahma padas.
 The 49 grid design is called Sthandila and of great importance in creative
expressions of Hindu temples in South India, particularly in ‘‘Prakaras’’. The
symmetric Vastu-purusa-mandala grids are sometimes combined to form a
temple superstructure with two or more attached squares. The temples face
sunrise, and the entrance for the devotee is typically this east side. The
mandala pada facing sunrise is dedicated to Surya deity (Sun). The Surya pada
is flanked by the padas of Satya (Truth) deity on one side and Indra (king of
gods) deity on other. The east and north faces of most temples feature a mix
of gods and demi-gods; while west and south feature demons and demi-gods
related to the underworld. This vastu purusha mandala plan and symbolism is
systematically seen in ancient Hindu temples on Indian subcontinent as well
as those in southeast Asia, with regional creativity and variations.
 The ancient texts on Hindu temple design, the Vastupurusamandala and Vastu
Sastras, do not limit themselves to the design of a Hindu temple.They
describe the temple as a holistic part of its community, and lay out various
principles and a diversity of alternate designs for home, village and city
layout along with the temple, gardens, water bodies and nature
North Indian temples (Nagara style)
 The 9x9 (81) grid ‘’Parama Sayika’’ layout plan (above) found in large
ceremonial Hindu Temples. It is one of many grids used to build Hindu
temples. In this structure of symmetry, each concentric layer has
significance. The outermost layer, Paisachika padas, signify aspects of
Asuras and evil; while inner Devika padas signify aspects of Devas and
good. In between the good and evil is the concentric layer of Manusha
padas signifying human life; All these layers surround Brahma padas,
which signifies creative energy and the site for temple’s primary idol
for darsana. Finally at the very center of Brahma padas is Grabhgriya
(Purusa Space), signifying Universal Principle present in everything
and everyone.
South Indian temples(Dravidian)
 The 8x8 (64) grid Manduka Hindu Temple Floor Plan, according to
Vastupurusamandala. The 64 grid is the most sacred and common
Hindu temple template. The bright saffron center, where diagonals
intersect above, represents the Purusha of Hindu philosophy.
Vasthu Mandala
 Installing a Sacred Image Murti
Sthapana/Prana Pratishta
 These installation ceremonies are generally given two names: Murti
Sthapana and Prana Pratishta. The word murti means sacred image
and “sthapana” means “placing,” and so the murti sthapana ceremony is the
“placing of the sacred image.” The other term, Prana Pratishta is a little less
common, but is still prevalent. “Prana” means “breath” and “pratishta” means
“establishing,” and so the Prana Pratishta ceremony is literally “establishing the
breath” within the sacred image.
There are two ways to understand the Murti Sthapana ceremony. The first is as a
contract. An agreement is established between the Deity and a temple congregation:
the Deity agrees to “descend” into the sacred image, and the congregation agrees to
care for the Deity in the form of service, seva. The ceremony is literally the bringing
and awakening of the Deity within the stone or metal image. The other view is more
theological. By definition God is all-pervading and omni-present and so the idea of
establishing the breath of the Deity within an image is impossible, God is already
there! The purpose of the ceremony is not to establish the Deity within the image, but
to awaken the mind of the participates, through the power of ritual, to the presence of
divinity within the sacred image. At the beginning of the ceremony people see only
stone or metal, but at the end they see God! The real installation takes place not in the
stone or metal image, but in the minds and hearts of the participants. This is the
power of ritual. The culmination of such a ceremony is when the “eyes” of the image
are actually opened. In some instances, a sculptor will chip away at the eyes of the
image and “open” them up. More commonly, a chief guest will be invited to remove a
covering from the eyes of the image with a golden coin or similar object. The first
thing the newly infused Deity will see is an image of Him or Herself as a mirror is
held before the newly “awakened” image.
 Priestly duties
Their primary responsibility is to conduct daily prayers (puja) at the temple. During Hindu
festivals, traditional events such as weddings, the sacred thread ceremony, performance of last
rites and special deity ceremonies, priests are called upon to conduct puja's either at the
temple or at the location of the event. In order to perform these puja's, the priests are
required to have prior skills and knowledge. To be a qualified priest, they must know the
required chants (mantras and strotas) fluently in Sanskrit and be familiar with the materials
required to perform the puja for various ceremonies and rituals. Pandits from an early age
were trained to memorize hymns in order to chant them during rituals and ceremonies
without aid. Receiving assistance to remember hymns and chants was frowned upon, and were
only expected to recite the hymns through memory.
Daily routines of Hindu priests would consist of prayers as much as four to six times per day and
perhaps even more. Every morning pandits are in charge of bathing the deity with water and
milk, clothing the deity with traditional wear and jewellery. After conducting the ritual, the
priest offers food to devotees after it has been presented in front of the god referred to as
prasad. Whilst food is being handed out, the priests as well as the devotees engage in singing
prayers praising the deity. The priests finally conclude with an arthi(lighted camphor) shown
to the deity and held in the presence of the devotees to receive dharshan(blessing).[6] A Hindu
priest would repeat this routine every day as a part of their responsibility in servicing god.
WATER AND RELEVANCE IN RITUAL AND TEMPLE
ARCHITECTURE
 Water in Hinduism has a special place because it is believed to have spiritually
cleansing powers. To Hindus all water is sacred, especially rivers, and there are
seven sacred rivers, namely the Ganges,Yamuna, Godavari, Sarasvati, Narmada,
Sindhu and Kaveri. Although Hinduism encompasses so many different beliefs
among those that most Hindus do share is the importance of striving to attain
purity and avoiding pollution. This relates to both physical cleanliness and
spiritual well-being.
 Pilgrimage is very important to Hindus. Holy places are usually located on the
banks of rivers, coasts, seashores and mountains. Sites of convergence,
between land and river or two, or even better three, rivers, carry special
significance and are specially sacred. Sacred rivers are thought to be a great
equalizer.
• The Ganges river is the most important of the sacred rivers. Its waters are used in
puja (worship) and if possible a sip is given to the dying. It is believed that those
who bathe in the Ganges and those who leave some part of themselves (hair, bone
etc) on the left bank will attain Svarga (the paradise of Indra). The river is said to
flow from the toe of Vishnu to be spread into the world through the hair of Shiva.
• Funeral grounds are always located near a river.
• For Hindus, morning cleansing with water is a basic obligation. Tarpana is the
point at which the worshipper makes a cup with his hands and pours the water
back into the river reciting mantras. After sipping some water, he may then apply
the distinguishing mark of his sampradaya (tradition), and say the morning prayer,
samdhya. Sodhana is Hindu purification and is necessary for different reasons and
at different levels. Physical purification is a part of daily ritual which may, in the
case of sadhus (Hindu holy people who renounce the world seeking Brahman), be
very elaborate. Sodhana is also necessary if caste rules have been broken, for
example if someone drinks from the same vessel as a member of a lower caste,
and before puja. Every temple has a pond near it and devotees are supposed to
take a bath before entering the temple.
MATHEMATICS, GEOMETRY,SCIENCE AND
PHILOSOPHIES IN TEMPLE ARCHITECTURE
(UNITS:2)
 Measures and proportions
 The structural harmony, the rhythm and a fine sense of proportion is the
hall mark of Indian temple architecture. It not merely resolves the
contradictions but also expresses harmony by encompassing all
contradictions, transforming into pure and uncompromised details of
structure. The aim of a proportional system, meaning not merely
symmetry, is to manifest a sense of coherence and harmony among the
elements of the temple and it’s whole. The proportional harmonization of
design, therefore, is of utmost importance in the construction of a temple.
It is believed that the power and purity of the structure radiates from its
exact proportions and measures as specified in the texts. It is also believed
that a meticulously well constructed temple radiates peace and joy; and
ensures the welfare of the world and its people.

 Without harmony, symmetry and proportion there can be no principles in

the design of any temple. This is analogues to the precise relation between
the features and organs of a well proportioned, good-looking person.
 The ancient texts, therefore, insist on a high degree of precision in their
measurements. The standard text Mayamata mentions “Only if the temple
is constructed correctly according to a mathematical system can it be
expected to function in harmony with the universe. Only if the
measurement of the temple is in every way perfect, there will be
perfection in the universe as well.”

 The Hindu temple is a feast of a variety of visual aspects, and wherever one
engages one of them, entering a doorway, circumambulating or
approaching the inner sanctuary or worshipping there– one is accessing
an aspect of the whole.

 The rules of Vastu-shastra render beauty, structural stability and quality of

spaces by virtue of light, sound and volume management. They also evoke
in the devotee an attuning of his person to its structure and ambience.
The ancient shilpis used a great degree of precision in their measurements.
Much of this system is followed by the present shilpis too. An interesting
feature of these systems is the standard unit of measurement; the smallest
unit mentioned is the anu or the particle, which is hardly perceptible.
The anu measure was employed for extremely delicate or intricate or the
most vital aspects of a sculpture; for instance, the eyes and facial features
of the image of presiding deity; or in the amazingly delicate and minute
carvings of the Hoyasla images. The norms and measures specified in the
Southern texts, it is said, are still in use. These measures are in two
categories; one for delicate and intricate work and the other for normal
structures.
Look at the table of measurements for minute and delicate carvings.
 Eight anus (particles) = one nulu (breadth of a fine cotton or silk fiber),
 Eight nulu = one hair (breadth of horse hair),
 Eight hairs = one grain of sand,
 Eight grains of sand = one mustard seed,
 Eight mustard-seeds = one bamboo seed,
 Eight bamboo-seeds = one angula.
The angula (1.875 cms) and the hasta (cubit, 45 cms) are the units that are normally
used for deriving the dimensions, proportions, the height and other details of a
sculpture. The Danda (four cubits) used for measuring less-delicate or lengthier
structure is equivalent to 180 cms.
 One Hastha = one cubit= 45 cms;
 Four Hasthas = one Danda= 96 angulas = 180 cms.
 One Hastha =24 angulas = 45 cms.
 Thus one angula = 1.875 cms.
 The old Sanskrit texts too mention a set of measurements. According to them
Anu or paramanu, the particle, was the smallest measure.
 8 anus = one ratha renu (grain of dust);
 8 ratha renu = one valagrasa (hair end);
 8 valagrasa =One grain of yava;
 4 yavas = one angula;
 12 angulas = one vitasta or Tala (span)
 2 Vitasta or Tala = Hastha (cubit) = 24 angulas
 26 angulas= Dhanurbhagha (handle of a bow).
 4 hatas = One Danda;
8 Dandas = One Rajju (rope)
1000 Rajju = One Yojana
VASTHU-HUMAN SCALE
The Vastu believes that every unit of time vibration
produces a corresponding unit of space measure; and
derives that the time is equal to space.
This rhythm of time and space vibrations is quantified
in terms of eight and as multiples of eight. According
to the Vastu, at the subtle level the human form is a
structure of eight spatial units apart from
elements like the hair, kneecap and toe nails, each of
which measures one-quarter of the basic measure of
the body and, when added on to the body’s eight
units, increases the height of the total form to nine
units. Traditionally, these nine units are applied in
making sculptures of gods.
Temple layout –relevance to human
form
 The 'Aham Brahmasmi' ("I am Brahman. I am part of the Universe.") is the great sayings
(Mahavakya) mentioned in Brihadaranyaka Upanishad 1.4.10. of YajurVeda. The
meaning is that ‘Whatever is in the Universe, is present in me’ (and ‘whatever is in
me, is part of the Universe’). Indian temples represents the macrocosm of the universe
and the structure of the human body represents the microcosm. Veda also says "Yatha
Pinde tatha Brahmande". It means what is going on within human being is the same as
what is going on in universe. According to the Tamil Saint Tirumular "our body is a
temple". Here I would like to quote Stella Kramrisch:
“The vastu-purusha-mandala represents the manifest form of the Cosmic Being; upon which the
temple is built and in whom the temple rests.The temple is situated in Him, comes from Him, and
is a manifestation of Him.The vastu-purusha-mandala is both the body of the Cosmic Being and
a bodily device by which those who have the requisite knowledge attain the best results in temple
building.” (Stella Kramrisch,; The Hindu Temple, Vol. I)
 The concept of chakra features in tantric and yogic traditions of Hinduism. In Yoga,
Kundalini Shakti means the ‘coiled power.’ It is compared to a serpent that lies coiled
while resting or sleeping.
Chakras are vital energy points (Kundalini energy) in the human anatomy, i.e. breath
channels, or nadis, and the winds (vayus), that are centres of life force (prana), or vital
energy. They include: 1. Muladhara, 2. Swadhisthana, 3. Manipura or manipuraka, 4.
Anahata, Anahata-puri, or padma-sundara, 5.Vishuddha orVishuddhi, 6. Ajna and 7.
Sahasrara.
1. Muladhara or root chakra located at the base of the spine in the coccygeal region
(governs senses). According to Vastu Mandala South-West (Nauritya) - Deity Lord
(Demon) Nauritya influences protection, strength and stability.

2. Swadhisthana or Adhishthana at the lower stomach region or the sacrum of the

human. Vastu direction West (Varuna) - LordVaruna (Neptune) Lord of Water or
Rain. Formation of temple tank or water bodies in South or West will influence
reputation, fame, prosperity and success.
3. Manipura or Manipuraka at the digestive glands (governs digestion through
pancreas and adrenal glands) of the human. Digestion involves energy of fire. Female
bears navel, womb and umbilical chord. According to Vastu Mandala Lord Brahma or
Lord of Creation seated on lotus flower base (Adishtana) rules this point. Cosmic
Brahma bridges the cosmic human navel or life. If this point in temple should be left
open, the vital energy flows and the wholeness resides with blessings and protection.

4. Anahata, Anahata-puri, or Padma-sundara located at chest (governs lungs, immune

system - thymus of human being). As per Vastu Mandala Lord Vayu or Lord of Wind
rules this point. This grid relates to air and regulation of air. If this grid is allowed to
flow air and the peace and comfort resides.
5. Vishuddha or Vishuddhi located at the throat i.e., thyroid glands (governs sound,
speech communication and sence of security of human being). Mantras chanted by
cosmic humanbeing bridges with cosmic Ishanya. Comic Ishanya is represented in
OM, a Pranava Mantra form. According to Vastu Mandala Lord Shiva in Ishanya form
rules this grid and represents the space or Akasha. Mantras chanted here will
reverberate in space. If left free from obstacles and less occupation or weight, there
will be balanced power.
6. Ajna or third eye located at pineal glands or between the eye brows; the two side
nadis 'Ida' (yoga) and 'Pingala' are terminating and merge with the central channel
'Sushumna' (governs higher and lower selves and trusting inner guidance of human
being). As per Vastu Mandala this direction is also related to open spaces (‘Akasha’)
and to the North East corner (Ishanya). The sanctum (Garbagriha or womb chamber)
is recommended at this grid, the seat of the divinity.

7. Sahasrara or pure consciousness chakra located at the crown of the head -

symbolized by a lotus with one thousand multi-coloured petals. According to Vastu
Mandala Anja is the sanctum. The vimanam and shikara forms the space element and
the currents of life ascends through the 'Brahma-randra shila' or stone slab placed at
'griva' (neck)of the vimana. The finial of the shikara of the vimanam is the grid at
which unseen sahasrara located.
TEMPLE LAYOUT-PLAN
Temple-construction, which generally follows an evolutionary process combines in itself
the stages of differentiation and fusion; creation and dissolution; and, emergence and
mergence or blending . Although such dynamic processes are at once conflicting and
complimentary, they all are harmonized in a meaningful composition to achieve the
final and the idealized image of the temple. The process is also analogous to the
emergence from the unity of the the seed to the diversity of the tree with many
branches.
A typical South Indian temple has a certain fairly well defined features and a generally
accepted layout. The most important structure of a temple is the garbhagriha or
sanctum sanctorum which houses the idol of the presiding deity.
The Garbagriha is followed by four types of mantapas or pavilions. Mantapa means any
roofed, open or enclosed pavilion (hall) resting on pillars, standing independently or
connected to the sanctum of the temple.
The first of the mantapas is the antarala (sometimes called sukanas or sukanasi or
ardhamantapa), a narrow pavilion connecting the gharbhagriha and the navaranga. It
usually will have niches in the north and south walls, occupied by a deity, with
attendant divinities in secondary niches flanking the central niche. In a few temples
the antarala serves as the navaranga too.
The next mantapa is nrttamantapa or navaranga, is a big hall used for congregational
services like singing, dancing, recitation of mythological texts, religious discourses
and so on. The navaranga will usually be on a raised platform and will have
nine anganas (openings) and sixteen pillars.
This is followed by Sanapana mantapa, a hall used for ceremonial purposes.
This leads to mukha mantapa the opening pavilion.
The Dwajasthamba (flag post) in front of either the garbhagrha or antarala or
the mantapa is another common feature. It represents the flag post of the
‘King of kings’. The lanchana (insignia) made of copper or brass fixed like a
flag to the top of the post varies according to the deity in the temple and
his/her nature.
The Balipitha (pedestal of sacrificial offerings) with a lotus or the footprints
of the deity is fixed near the Dwajasthamba, but nearer to the deity. Red-
colored offerings like rice mixed with vermillion powder, are kept on this
at appropriate stages of rituals for feeding
the parivara_devatas and panchabhuthas or the elements.
A Dipastambha (lamp post) is situated either in front of the Balipitha or
outside the main gate. The top of this post has a bud shaped chamber to
receive the lamp.
The whole temple is surrounded by a high wall (prakara) with one main and
three subsidiary gates, opening in the cardinal directions. A gopura (high
tower,) adorns these gateways.
Temple tanks
Since ancient times, the design of water storage has been important in India's temple architecture,
especially in western India where dry and monsoon seasons alternate. Temple tank design became
an art form in itself. An example of the art of tank design is the large, geometically spectacular
Stepped Tank at the Royal Center at the ruins of Vijayanagara, the capital of the Vijayanagara
Empire, surrounding the modern town of Hampi. It is lined with green diorite and has no drain.
It was filled by aqueduct.
The tanks are used for ritual cleansing and during rites of consecration. The water in the tank is
deemed to be sacred water from the Ganges River.
Stepwell
In India, a stepwell is a deep masonry well with steps going down to the water level in the well. It is
called a vav in west India and a baoli in north India. Some were built by kings and were richly
ornamented.They often were built by nobility, some being for secular use from which anyone
could obtain water
Kalyani, also called pushkarni, are ancient Hindu stepped bathing wells.
 These wells were typically built near Hindu temples to accommodate bathing and cleansing
activities before prayer. They are also used for immersion of Ganesha idols during Ganesha
Chaturthi.
Sarovar
In Sikhism temple tanks are called "Sarovar".
 STHAMBA-COLUMNS
Rám Ráz in his Essay on the Architecture of the Hindús describes seven kinds of Pillars (Sthamba) in relation
to the thickness of the walls, the strength and breadth of the base, and the number of floors in the
building. According to Rám Ráz :
 When the base is taken as a reference point for the length of a pillar, than it may be 1¼, 1½, 1¾ or
2 times the height of the base. In total there are 12 varieties of the height of a pillar. For the pilaster
(in other words a wall-pillar) it is 3, 4, 5 or 6 angulas. The diameter of a pillar is 2, 3 or 4 times the
width of the pilaster.
As regards the form or shape of the pillars, Rám Ráz states :
 There are 6 forms of pillars, namely: square, pentagonal (5 sides), hexagonal (6 sides), octagonal (8
sides), 16 sided and circular. These shapes are uniform from bottom to top, but the base and top may
be square.
 The top of a pillar consists of 7 elements : The bracket capital, the dye (featuring a human figure),
the abacus, the bell capital, the support, the lotus and the band ornamented with garlands.

THE WALLS
 The walls of the sanctum raise above a series of moldings, constituting the adhisthana, a base that
sticks out from under the bottom wall. The adistana should be strong and massive, as it carries the
entire weight of the Garbha griha, the mantapa and the path for circumblation pradakshina; and also
of the weight of the super structures, such as the Vimana and its details.
GARBHAGRHA
 The most important part of a temple, its very heart as it were, is the
garbhagrha or the sanctum sanctorum, the cave-like cube-shaped
“womb room,” located within the Brahmasthana of the Vastu Purusha
Mandala, directly above the gold box, placed earlier in the earth during
the garbhadhana ceremony. Here on the altar, the deity in the Dhruva
Bheru (immovable) form is installed.
 According to the nature and placement of the presiding deity, the
entrance will be determined either to North or to East of Garbagriha.
The placement of other deities will also be determined accordingly.
 Garbhagriha usually is a cube with a low roof and with no doors or
windows except for the front opening. The image of the deity is
stationed in the geometrical centre, facing the midpoint of the chosen
direction. The whole place completely dark, except for the light that
comes through the front opening. The name garbhagriha perhaps has
reference to the devotee finding his way to this secret inner place and
being reborn from it, emerging later, transformed, by grace.
Mantapas
 The Garbagriha is followed by four types of mantapas or pavilions.
Mantapa means any roofed, open or enclosed pavilion (hall) resting on
pillars, standing independently or connected to the sanctum of the
temple.
 The first of the mantapas a narrow pavilion connecting the gharbhagriha
and the navaranga. It usually will have niches in the north and south
walls, occupied by a deity, with attendant divinities in secondary niches
flanking the central niche. In a few temples the antarala serves as the
navaranga too.
 The next mantapa is navaranga, is a big hall used for congregational
services like singing, dancing, recitation of mythological texts, religious
discourses and so on. The navaranga will usually be on a raised platform
and will have nine anganas (openings) and sixteen pillars.
 This is followed by Sanapana mantapa, a hall used for ceremonial
purposes. This leads to mukha mantapa the opening pavilion.
Prakara
 The whole temple is surrounded by a high wall (prakara) with one
main and three subsidiary gates, opening in the cardinal directions.
A gopura (high tower,) adorns these gateways.
 These were of course later developments; and in due course
became characteristic features of South Indian temple
architecture. It is said, the Agama texts provide for as many as 32
prakaras, the concentric – enclosing walls. But, they recommend
five to seven as advisable, in case more than one enclosure is
needed. In many cases, the main area of the temple, plus the halls,
tanks, and gardens are surrounded by a single wall (prakara) or
enclosure. But many major temples do have a series of
enclosures.
 As mentioned earlier the Sri Rangam temple has seven enclosing
walls, enveloping the whole township.
VIMANA
 The term Vimana has acquired various interpretations. Sometimes the term
Vimana stands for the temple. Often, Vimana means the tower shikara, raised to
its final height above the sanctum .
 the term Vimana should, strictly, refer to the rotund structure above the series
of elevations (tala) which stand on kapota (the flat roof over the sanctum).
vimana, should refer to the structure between the final Tala and the stupi, the
end. The Vimana rests or is surrounded by the Kanta (neck).
 Another interpretation is that Sikhara meaning mountain peak, refers to the
rising tower of a temple constructed as per the architecture of North India; and
is it’s most prominent and visible feature. While the Northern texts identify the
Sikhara as Prasada; the Southern texts call them Vimana. The Vimana is pyramid
like; and Prasada is curvilinear in its outline. We may for the present go with the
last mentioned interpretation.
 Among the several styles of Sikharas that obtain in temple architecture, the
three most common ones are: the Dravida prevalent in south India; the
Nagara the most common style; and the third born from the synthesis of the
other two called the Vesara, seen mostly in Hoysala and later Chalukya temples
of Karnataka.
 The Dravida style is highly ornate; the Nagara style is simpler and consists of a curvilinear
dome. In the Vesara style, the dome is highly ornate and emerges from the Sukanasi or from
the richly carved outer walls of the temple. In every style of Sikhara/Vimanam, the structure
culminates with a Kalashaat its peak.
 The Vimana in the South Indian temple history had an interesting career. For instance, the
most magnificent Vimana of the Raja-rajeshwara temple at Tanjavur (1009 AD) rises to an
imposing height of 58 meters. Another temple of the same period at Gangaikonda-chola-
puram (1025 AD) rises to a height of 48 meters. Thereafter, in the subsequent periods, the
Vimanas tended to grow shorter. But the Gopuras, the towers that stand over the gate-ways
(dwara-gopura) became increasingly ornate, complicated and huge.
 The sanctity of Vimanas was not in any manner affected by its diminished size. While the
sculptures on the outer Gopuras could house secular and even erotic themes, the Vimana had
to be austere and carry only the prescribed divinities associated with the mula-bhera in the
sanctum. The Vimana is verily the representation or the outer visible form of the murthi that
resides within it; and is revered as such. It represents the glory (vaibhava) of the deity the
antaryamin who resides within it. The Gopura on the other hand does not usually command an
equal status.
 the Nagara tradition, which was practiced in the Northern, Western and Eastern parts of
India, a barrel vaulted, rectangular superstructure that runs at right-angle to the entrance of
the Gargha-griha is termed as Valabhi Prasada. The Valabhi turret is an ornamental structure on
a flat roof. Usually, the sloping Valabhi resting on a flat roof is capped with multiple amlakas
and finales, Shikhara.
Ananda NilayaVimana is of Vesara architecture; and the Vimana is in Dvitala, meaning that structure
above the Kapotha slab has risen in two stages; and on the top of the second tala is the Vimana, per se, in a
rotund shape. Its total height from its base to the top of the Kalasha is 32’08” .Both the Talas are square in
shape. The lower Tala depicts, in its four sides, the icons of the Vaikhanasa School: Purusha, Sathya,
Achtuta and Aniruddha. The upper tala depicts about fifty-nine images including those of Hanuman,
Garuda and several Rishis. The most famous Sri Vimana Venkateshwara is on the North face of the upper
Tala.
The Kanta (neck), at the end of each Tala , is circular in shape. The rotund Vimana, atop the second Tala
and enclosed by the circular Kanta (neck) is adorned with lotus motif.
The crowning glory of the Brihadeeswara temple is the staggering
cupola of the Vimana comprising two huge, sculpted, granite
blocks weighing 40 tonnes each. The engineering skills and the
expertise that made the mounting of these huge stones atop a
structure that is nearly 200 feet high must have been way ahead of
their times. Legend says that the stone was brought
from Sarapallam (scaffold-hollow), four miles north-east of the
city, using a specially designed ramp.
Vertically the vimana is organized by pilasters that break up the
facade of the base, creating spaces for niches and windows in
between. However, the temple departs from southern Indian
convention in one significant way: the vimana is taller than the
gopura (gateways) of the temple’s walls. Normally the gopuras
are taller than the vimana. The Vimana rises to a height of abut
216 feet, a tower of fourteen storeys. The basement of the
structure which supports the tower is 96 feet square. The
gilded Kalasa over it is 12.5 feet high. It is believed the sikhara and
the stupi does not throw on the ground. The dome rests on a
single block of granite, 25.5 feet square.
The architects and engineers attribute the stability of the massive
temple to its pyramidal structure. They say it is more robust than
its counterparts from north India with their complex curvilinear
profiles.
GOPURAMS
 The case of major temples, the entire temple area is surrounded by a series of
conectric protective walls, the prakaras. The lofty towers erected owers erected over
the entrance gateways of these walls are the Gopuras. These rectangular,
pyramidal towers, often fifty metres high dominate the city skyline. And, adorned
with intricate and brightly painted sculptures of gods, demons, humans, and animals,
have become the hallmark of southern architecture; though, strictly, they are not the
essential aspect of a temple layout or its structure. The Gopura emphasizes the
importance of the temple within the city.
 The Gopura is a unique feature of the Dravidian architecture. It had its origin and
development in South; and the other schools of architecture do not have equivalent
features. the older texts that the concept of Gopura originated from extensive cow-
stalls (Go-griha) which was virtually a gate-house at the doorways of a huge building
, monastery , temple or even a town (Pura-dvaram tu gopuram I Dvara-matre tu gopuram
I ). The Gopura, therefore, technically, denoted gate-houses of palaces, cities and
residential buildings of various descriptions; and that they did not necessarily belong
to temples alone.
 The advent of Gopura in Dravidian architecture was rather late. The practice of erecting
a Gopura at the entrance gateway to the temple seems to have come into being during
the mid-12th century. And, with the decline of the mighty Cholas and with the
increasing threat from invading armies, the temple cities (prominently Madurai and Sri
Rangam) found it expedient to erect a series of protective walls to safeguard and defend
their temples, palaces and cities. The Gopuras constructed on the gateways leading from
one enclosure to the next, initially, served as watch and defensive towers.
 Agama texts mention that each enclosure must have door-ways in all four directions
 A Gopura is generally constructed with a massive stone base and a superstructure of
brick and pilaster. It is rectangular in plan and topped by a barrel-vault roof crowned
with a row of finials. It differs from the Vimanam in that it need not necessarily be
square-based. Above that rectangular base a pyramidal structure covered with brightly
coloured plethora of sculpture is raised to a great height. A Gopura has to be towering
and massive.
Sri Ranganatha temple at Sri Rangam, which has seven enclosure walls and as many
as twenty-one Gopuras, halls, other temples and township constructed over several
centuries. The seventh, the outer most, enclosure is 3072 feet in length and 2521 feet
in breadth; enclosing an area of about six hundred acres.
 The grand Meenakshi temple in Madurai is another great illustration of this development
which was initiated by the Pandya kings. It was during this period that the building of a temple
became the nucleus of a town-planning exercise, which we discussed in the earlier parts of this
article.
 Though the evolution of the Dravidian temple architecture stalled briefly after the demise of
the Pandyan Empire, the architectural expression scaled new heights during the reign of the
Vijayanagara kings (15th and 16th centuries). Although the later temples were not huge in size,
they often were of very fine workmanship. For instance, the Subrahmanya temple of the 17th
century
Dhvajastambha-Flag staff
 The dhvajastambha (flag post) in front of either the garbhagrha or antarala or the mantapa is another common
feature of the temples. It should be perpendicular and directly opposite to the idol. It will be located very close to
perpendicular and directly opposite to the idol. It will be located very close to the Bali pitha; and the Bali pitha
will between the sanctum and the Dwajasthamba. It represents the flag post of the ‘King of kings’. The lanchana
(insignia) made of copper or brass fixed like a flag to the top of the post varies according to the deity in the
temple. The figure on the lanchana is invariably that of the vahana (carrier vehicle) of the deity. For instance, in
Siva temples it contains Nandi. In Devi temples it is the lion that finds its place. In Vishnu temples the Garuda gets
that honour.
 The practice of erecting tall columns of fifty to eighty feet in height appears to be of recent origin. In the early
stages, these flag posts were perhaps meant to indicate the position of the sanctum. Even today, the temples in
North India fly long flowing banners and flags from the tower atop the sanctum.
 In course of time the permanently fixed flag-staff became a common feature in temple architecture. The older
temples had flagstaffs made of stone. That gave place to the practice of erecting a stone pillar or wooden pole
covered with copper, brass, or even silver plates gilded and installed on a raised stone platform, often square in
shape,located in front of the sanctum. The top portion of this tall mast will have three horizontal perches
(symbolizing righteousness, reputation and prosperity, or the three divinities Brahma the Creator, Vishnu the
Preserver and Siva the destroyer), pointing towards the sanctum.
 The pedestal or the seat of the flag-staff as well as the mast with perches became highly stylized in South India
during the days of the Chola and Pallaya rulers, for the flag-staff was uniquely a royal insignia.
UNIT-3
Hindu temple in Order
Nagara style
Vesara style
Dravida style
AIHOLE TEMPLE
Aihole (pronounced "Eye-hoé"), also referred to as Aivalli, Ahivolal or Aryapura, is a historic site of
ancient and medieval era Buddhist, Hindu and Jain monuments in north Karnataka (India) dated from the
fourth century through the twelfth century CE.Located around an eponymous small village surrounded by
farmlands and sandstone hills, Aihole is a major archaeological site featuring over one hundred and twenty
stone and cave temples from this period, spread along the Malaprabha river valley, in Bagalakote district.
Aihole is 22 miles (35 km) from Badami and about 6 miles (9.7 km) from Pattadakal, both of which are major
centers of historically important Chalukya monuments. Aihole, along with nearby Badami (Vatapi),
emerged by the 6th century as the cradle of experimentation with temple architecture, stone artwork, and
construction techniques. This resulted in 16 types of free-standing temples and 4 types of rock-cut shrines.
The experimentation in architecture and arts that began in Aihole yielded the group of monuments at
Pattadakal, a UNESCO world heritage site.
Over one hundred Aihole temples are Hindu, a few are Jain and one is Buddhist. These were built and
coexisted in close proximity. The site is spread over about 5 square kilometres (1.9 sq mi).The Hindu
temples are dedicated to Shiva, Vishnu, Durga, Surya and other Hindu deities. The Jain Basadi temples are
dedicated to Mahavira, Parshvanatha, Neminatha and other Jain Tirthankaras.The Buddhist monument is a
monastery. Both Hindu and Jain monuments include monasteries, as well as social utilities such as stepwell
water tanks with artistic carvings near major temples.
 Significance of the Durga Temple Aihole:-
The Durga Temple Aihole is one of the architectural wonders of Aihole.The Durga Temple Aihole is
quadrilateral in shape. The contour of the temple exhibits the Gajaprasta style, that is, the backside of an
elephant. Durga Temple Aihole is impressive with numerous pillar reliefs which exhibit the unique
Chalukya architectural style. Also known as the fortress temple, the Durga Temple Aihole depicts a
Buddhist chaitya and is adorned with exquisite carvings. One of the most beautiful sculptures of the
Durga Temple Aihole is that of Goddess Durga.
The seven headed serpent carved at the ceiling of the Durga Temple of Aihole is another impressive
work by the artisans. All the walls of the Durga Temple are decorated with sculptures of Hindu gods and
goddesses. The temple also comes with a porch and an entrance to the epistle. Through the porch you can
enter the rooms of the temple. There are several rooms within the Durga Temple along with a Garba
Griha. This is the main part of the shrine where the spirit of the shrine is located. There are two main
pillars of the temple, namely, the Mukha Mantapa and the Sabha Mantapa.The elevated plinth, the high
galleries and the moulded adisthana are the other characteristics of the Durga Temple. The fine sculptures
of Lord Narashima, Goddess Chamundi and Lord Shiva are the other attractions of the Durga Temple
 Lad Khan Temple:-

Dedicated to Lord Shiva, this is one of the oldest Hindu temples of India. Located to the south of the Durga Temple, this rock cut temple is exquisite with floral patterns
and delicate lattice work on its floor and walls.

Ambigera Gudi Temple:-

Situated just opposite to the Durga Temple, it is a complex of three temples. The Ambigera Gudi Temple is dedicated to Lord Surya and Lord Vishnu and exhibits a
beautifully engraved lotus at its ceiling. This 10th century construction reflects the Nagara style of architecture with shikaras, mandapas and sanctums.

Mallikarjuna Temple:-

Dedicated to Lord Shiva, this temple is located at the small town of Basaralu. Reflecting the Hoysala style of architecture, this shrine comes with a trikuta, which means
three shrines are connected with a common hall. Built over a platform, this temple comes with a decorative pot, known as kalasa, a Hoysala crest, that is, the emblem of
a Hoysala warrior and decorative walls.

Chikki Temple:-

This is a Jain temple built in 1204 AD. The temple pillars are engraved with Kannada inscriptions which narrate the era of Ratta King Kartaveerya IV and Sevuna Yadava
Krishna.

Eniyar Temple:-

A group of eight temples, this temple complex is located at the western outskirts of the Aihole village. While the first two temples do not have images, the third temple
is dedicated to Lord Shiva. The other temples are adorned with the images of Gajalakshmi, Ganapati and Karthikeya.

Hucchimalli Temple:-

One of the oldest temples of Aihole, the Hucchimalli Temple is dedicated to Lord Shiva. The temple comes with a large hall and engraved with beautiful works.

Jain temple, Meguti temple:-

This Jain temple is located at a hilltop, just at 16 kms from Aihole. The temple is built with mortar and comes with a 16 columned porch and hall extensions.

Ravana Phadi rock-cut temple:-

This is a sandstone temple of Aihole, dedicated to Lord Shiva. The temple houses a wonderful sculpture of Nandi, the Vahana (vehicle) of Lord Shiva. The temple also
comes with numerous small pillars.
NAGARA STYLE
Nagara style( Satwa/Indo-Aryan style)
The Khajuraho Group of Monuments is a group of Hindu, Buddhist and Jain temples in Madhya
Pradesh, India, about 175 kilometres (109 mi) southeast of Jhansi. They are one of the UNESCO
World Heritage Sites in India. The temples are famous for their nagara-style architectural
symbolism and their erotic sculptures.
Most Khajuraho temples were built between 950 and 1050 by the Chandela Rajput dynasty.Historical
records note that the Khajuraho temple site had 85 temples by the 12th century, spread over 20
square kilometers Of these, only about 25 temples have survived, spread over 6 square kilometers.
Of the various surviving temples, the Kandariya Mahadeva Temple is decorated with a profusion of
sculptures with intricate details, symbolism and expressiveness of ancient Indian art.
The Khajuraho group of temples were built together but were dedicated to two religions, Hinduism
and Jainism, suggesting a tradition of acceptance and respect for diverse religious views among
Hindus and Jains in the region.
The temple site is within Vindhya mountain range in central India. An ancient local legend held that Hindu deity Shiva and other gods enjoyed visiting the dramatic hill
formation in Kalinjar area. The center of this region is Khajuraho, set midst local hills and rivers. The temple complex reflects the ancient Hindu tradition of building
temples where gods love to pray.
The temples are clustered near water, another typical feature of Hindu temples. The current water bodies include Sib Sagar, Khajur Sagar (also called Ninora Tal) and Khudar
Nadi (river).The local legends state that the temple complex had 64 water bodies, of which 56 have been physically identified by archeologists so far.
All temples, except one (Chaturbhuja) face sunrise - another symbolic feature that is predominant in Hindu temples. The relative layout of temples integrate masculine and
feminine deities and symbols highlight the interdependence. The art work symbolically highlight the four goals of life considered necessary and proper in Hinduism -
dharma, kama, artha and moksha.
Of the surviving temples, 6 are dedicated to Shiva and his consorts, 8 to Vishnu and his affinities, 1 to Ganesha, 1 to Sun god, 3 to Jain Tirthankars. For some ruins, there is
insufficient evidence to assign the temple to specific deities with confidence.
An overall examination of site suggests that the Hindu symbolic mandala design principle of square and circles is present each temple plan and design.Further, the territory is
laid out in three triangles that converge to form a pentagon. Scholars suggest that this reflects the Hindu symbolism for three realms or trilokinatha, and five cosmic
substances or panchbhuteshvara.[The temple site highlights Shiva, the one who destroys and recycles life, thereby controlling the cosmic dance of time, evolution and
dissolution.
The temples have a rich display of intricately carved statues. While they are famous for their erotic sculpture, sexual themes cover less than 10% of the temple sculpture.
Further, most erotic scene panels are neither prominent nor emphasized at the expense of the rest, rather they are in proportional balance with the non-sexual images.
The viewer has to look closely to find them, or be directed by a guide. The arts cover numerous aspects of human life and values considered important in Hindu
pantheon. Further, the images are arranged in a configuration to express central ideas of Hinduism. All three ideas from Āgamas are richly expressed in Khajuraho
temples - Avyakta, Vyaktavyakta and Vyakta.
The Beejamandal temple is under excavation. It has been identified with the Vaidyanath temple mentioned in the Grahpati Kokalla inscription.
Of all temples, the Matangeshvara temple remains an active site of worship.It is another square grid temple, with a large 2.5 metres (8.2 ft) high and 1.1 metres (3.6 ft)
diameter lingam, placed on a 7.6 metres (25 ft) diameter platform.
The most visited temple, Kandariya Mahadev, has an area of about 6,500 square feet and a shikhara (spire) that rises 116 feet.
Nagara style in Kashmir
 Shankaracharya Temple
 The temple rests on a solid rock. A 20-foot tall octagonal base supports a square building on top. The
terrace around the square temple is reached by a stone staircase enclosed between two walls. A doorway
on the opposite side of the staircase leads to the interior, which is a small and dark chamber, circular in
plan. The ceiling is supported by four octagonal columns, which surround a Basin containing a Lingam
encircled by a snake.
Surya Mandir, Gwalior
Gujarat-Dwarka
 The town of Dwarka in Gujarat has a history that dates back centuries, and mentioned in
the Mahabharat epic as the Dwaraka Kingdom. Situated on the banks of river Gomti, the town is
described in legend as the capital of Lord Krishna. Evidence such as a stone block with script, the
way the stones were dressed showing that dowels had been used, and an examination of anchors
found on the site suggest that the harbour site dates only to historical times, with some of the
underwater structure being late Medieval. Coastal erosion was probably the cause of the
destruction of what was an ancient port.
 Hindus believe that the original temple was constructed by Vajranabh, the great grand son of
Krishna, over the residential palace of Krishna.
 The current temple in Chaulukya style is constructed in 15-16th century. The temple covers area of
27 metre by 21 metre with east-west length of 29 metre and north-south width of 23 metres. The
tallest peak of the temple is 51.8 m high.
VASARA STYLE
Badami group of temples
 The Bhutanatha group of temples is a cluster of sandstone shrines dedicated to the deity
Bhutanatha, in Badami town of Karnataka state, India. There are two major temples here. Temple
No.1, on the east side of the lake, called the Bhutanatha temple has a superstructure that resembles
early South Indian style or North Indian style with its open mantapa (hall or Veranda) extending
into the lake, while the smaller Temple No.2 on the north-east side of the lake, sometimes called the
Mallikarjuna group of temples, has a stepped superstructure, commonly found in Kalyani
Chalukya constructions.The inner shrine and mantapa (hall) of Temple No.1 were constructed in
the late 7th century, during the reign of the Badami Chalukyas. While the outer mantapa, facing the
Badami tank, was completed during the rule of the Kalyani Chalukyas of the 11th century. Hence
the Bhutanatha temple contain architectural forms from different periods. Studies show that
these Kalyani Chalukya architects could have belonged to the same early phase workshop, that later
built the nearby Yellamma temple and the Mallikarjuna group of temples.
 In the inner hall of the Bhutanatha temple, a heavy architrave above the columns divides the hall into a
central nave and two aisles. The pillars are massive and the bays in the ceiling of the nave is decorated with
lotus rosette. Perforated windows bring dim light into the inner mantapa. On either side of the foot of the
shrine doorway is an image of goddess Ganga on her vehicle, the makara, on the right, and on the left, that
of goddessesYamuna riding the tortoise. There is no dedicatory block upon the lintel to indicate to which
deity the initial dedication was for. The Shiva linga in the shrine appears to be a later addition after the
original deity in the sanctum was removed.
 The temple is unfinished and at the base of the superstructure (Shikhara), are vestiges of Jain architecture.
The image niches on the wall of the shrine and the hall are now empty though some decorative elements
like makharas (mythical beast) with long tails still remain.To the north of the hall is a small shrine which
was originally consecrated for Vishnu. Following later Jain modifications, the temple was eventually taken
over by the followers of Lingayatism who built an outer hall and installed a Nandi (vehicle of Shiva) and a
Shiva linga inside the sanctum.
 The Mallikarjuna group exhibits topological features popularised by the Kalyani Chalukya architects,
including plain walls, angled eaves over the open mantapa (hall) and pyramid shaped superstructures made
of closely spaced horizontal tiers.
PATTADAKAL
 Pattadakal, alsocalled Paṭṭadakallu or Raktapura, is a complex of 7th and 8th century
CE Hindu and Jain temples in northern Karnataka (India). Located on the west bank of
the Malaprabha River in Bagalakote district, this UNESCOWorld Heritage site is 14 miles
(23 km) from Badami and about 6 miles (9.7 km) from Aihole, both of which are historically
significant centres of Chaluky monuments. The monument is a protected site under Indian law
and is managed by the Archaeological Survey of India
 The Pattadakal monuments reflect a fusion of two major Indian architectural styles, one from
north India (Rekha-Nagara-Prasada) and the other from south India (Dravida-Vimana). Four
temples were built in the Chalukya Dravida style, four in the Nagara style of Northern India,
while the Papanatha temple is a fusion of the two. The nine Hindu temples are all dedicated
to Shiva and are on the banks of Malaprabha river. The oldest of these temples is
Sangameshwara, which was built during the reign of Vijayaditya Satyashraya, between 697 and
733 CE. The largest of these temples in Pattadakal is the Virupaksha Temple, which was built
between 740 and 745 CE.
 The last temple built in the Group of Monuments is the Jain temple, known locally as the Jain
Narayana temple, which was likely built in the 9th century during the reign of Krishna II
of Rashtrakutas.Its style is patterned on the lines of the Kailasanatha temple at Kanchipuram
Kailasa temple, Ellora

 The Kailash or Kailasanatha temple (Kailāsanātha) is one of the

largest Indian rock-cut ancient Hindu temples located in the Ellor
Caves, Maharashtra, India. A megalith carved out of one single rock, it is
considered one of the most remarkable cave temples in India because of
its size, architecture and sculptural treatment.
 The Kailasa temple (Cave 16) is one of the 32 cave temples and
monasteries known collectively as the Ellora Caves. Its construction is
generally attributed to the eighth century Rashtrakuta king Krishna I in
756-773. The temple architecture shows traces
of Pallava and Chalukya styles.
 The Kailasa temple architecture is different from the earlier style prevalent in the Deccan region. As stated above, it appears to be based on
the Virupaksha Temple at Pattadakal and the Kailasa temple at Kanchi, but it is not an exact imitation of these two temples.The southern
influence on the temple architecture can be attributed to the involvement of Chalukya and Pallava artists in its construction.The indigenous
Deccan artisans appear to have played a subordinate role in the temple's construction.
 The entrance to the temple courtyard features a low gopuram.Most of the deities at the left of the entrance are Shaivaite (followers of Lord
Shiva) while on the right hand side the deities are Vaishnavaites (followers of Lord Vishnu). A two-storeyed gateway opens to reveal a U-
shaped courtyard. The dimensions of the courtyard are 82 m x 46 m at the base.The courtyard is edged by a columned arcade three stories
high. The arcades are punctuated by huge sculpted panels, and alcoves containing enormous sculptures of a variety of deities. Originally flying
bridges of stone connected these galleries to central temple structures, but these have fallen.
 Within the courtyard, there is a central shrine dedicated to Shiva, and an image of his mount Nandi (the sacred bull). The central shrine
housing the lingam features a flat-roofed mandapa supported by 16 pillars, and a Dravidian shikhara.The shrine – complete with pillars,
windows, inner and outer rooms, gathering halls, and an enormous stone lingam at its heart – is carved with niches, plasters, windows as
well as images of deities, mithunas (erotic male and female figures) and other figures. As is traditional in Shiva temples, Nandi sits on a porch
in front of the central temple. The Nandi mandapa and main Shiva temple are each about 7 metres high, and built on two storeys. The lower
stories of the Nandi Mandapa are both solid structures, decorated with elaborate illustrative carvings. The base of the temple has been carved
to suggest that elephants are holding the structure aloft. A rock bridge connects the Nandi Mandapa to the porch of the temple. The base of
the temple hall features scenes from Mahabharata and Ramayana.
 BELLUR
 The Chennakeshava Temple, also referred to as Keshava, Kesava or Vijayanarayana
Temple of Belur, is a 12th-century Hindu temple in the Hassan district of Karnataka state,
India. It was commissioned by King Vishnuvardhana in 1117 CE, on the banks of theYagachi
River in Belur also called Velapura, an early Hoysala Empire capital. The temple was built over
three generations and took 103 years to finish. It was repeatedly damaged and plundered
during wars, repeatedly rebuilt and repaired over its history. It is 35 km from Hassan city and
about 200 km from Bengaluru.
 Chennakesava (lit, "handsome Kesava") is a form of the Hindu godVishnu. The temple is
dedicated to Vishnu and has been an active Hindu temple since its founding. It is reverentially
described in medieval Hindu texts, and remains an important pilgrimage site in Vaishnavism
The temple is remarkable for its architecture, sculptures, reliefs, friezes as well its
iconography, inscriptions and history. The temple artwork depicts scenes of secular life in the
12th century, dancers and musicians, as well as a pictorial narration of Hindu texts such as
the Ramayana, the Mahabharata and the Puranas through numerous friezes. It is a Vaishnava
temple that reverentially includes many themes from Shaivism and Shaktism, as well as images
of a Jina from Jainism and the Buddha from Buddhism. The Chennakeshava temple is a
testimony to the artistic, cultural and theological perspectives in 12th century South India and
the Hoysala Empire rule
Halibedu
 Hoysaleswara temple, also referred simply as the Halebidu temple, is a 12th-century Hindu temple dedicated to Shiva. It is the
largest monument in Halebidu, a town in the state of Karnataka, India and the former capital of the Hoysala Empire. The temple was
built on the banks of a large man-made lake, and sponsored by King Vishnuvardhana of the Hoysala Empire. Its construction started
around 1121 CE and was complete in 1160 CE. During the early 14th century, Halebidu was twice sacked and plundered by
the Muslim armies of Delhi Sultanate from northern India, and the temple and the capital fell into a state of ruin and neglect. It is 30
kilometres (19 mi) from Hassan city and about 210 kilometres (130 mi) from Bengaluru
 The Hoysaleswara temple is a Shaivism tradition monument, yet reverentially includes many themes
from Vaishnavism and Shaktism tradition of Hinduism, as well as images from Jainism.The Hoysaleswara temple is a twin-temple
dedicated to Hoysaleswara and Santaleswara Shiva lingas, named after the masculine and feminine aspects, both equal and joined at
their transept. It has two Nandi shrines outside, where each seated Nandi face the respective Shiva linga inside.The temple includes a
smaller sanctum for the Hindu Sun god Surya. It once had superstructure towers, but no longer and the temple looks flat.The
temple faces east, though the monument is presently visited from the north side. Both the main temples and the Nandi shrines are
based on a square plan.The temple was carved from soapstone. It is notable for its sculptures, intricate reliefs, detailed friezes as well
its history, iconography, inscriptions in North Indian and South Indian scripts. The temple artwork provides a pictorial window into
the life and culture in the 12th century South India. About 340 large reliefs depict the Hindu theology and associated
legends. Numerous smaller friezes narrate Hindu texts such as the Ramayana, the Mahabharata and the Bhagavata Purana. Some friezes
below large reliefs portray its narrative episodes.
Sringeri
 Sharadamba Temple is a famous Hindu temple dedicated to
goddess Saraswati in the holy town of Sringeri in Karnataka, India.
 The SharadambaTemple at Sringeri (Shringa giri in Sanskrit) is an
8th-century temple, founded by Sri Adi Shankaracharya. It housed
a sandalwood statue of Shardamba in a standing posture, which
was installed by Adi Shankarachaya until the Vijayanagara rulers
and Sri Vidyaranya (12th Jagadguru) installed a seated gold statue
of Sri Shardamba in the 14th century.
Dravida style
Kanchi Kailasanathar Temple

 The Kanchi Kailasanathar temple is the oldest structure in Kanchipuram. Located

in Tamil Nadu, India, it is a Hindu temple in the Dravidian architectural style. It is
dedicated to the Lord Shiva, and is known for its historical importance. The temple was
built from 685-705AD by a Rajasimha (Narasimhavarman II) ruler of the Pallava
Dynasty. The low-slung sandstone compound contains a large number of carvings,
including many half-animal deities which were popular during the early Dravidian
architectural period.The structure contains 58 small shrines which are dedicated to
various forms of Shiva. These are built into niches on the inner face of the high
compound wall of the circumambulatory passage.The temple is one of the most
prominent tourist attractions of the city
 The temple has retained the Pallava architecture in its original stylized form with influence of the later styles developed by the Chola
Dynasty andVijayanagara Emperors. It is of stone built architecture unlike the rock cut architecture built into hallowed caves or carved into
rock outcrops as in Mahabalipuram. The tall gopuram (tower) is to the left and the temple complex is to the right.The temple's foundations
are made of granite, which could withstand the weight of the temple, while the superstructure, including the carvings, are all made
of sandstone. Initially, only the main sanctuary existed with pyramidal vimana and a detached mandapa (main hall).

 The temple complex is complete in all respects as it has garbagriha (sanctum sanctorum), antarala (inner enclosure), mandapa, a high
compound wall, and an entrance gate, the gopuram.The mandapa, which was initially detached, was made part of the main shrine by
interposing an ardhamantapa (smaller hall). The pillars of the mandapa have the repetitive features of mythical lion mounts.
 The structure has a simple layout with a tower or vimana at the center of the complex. The vimana of the temple, above the main shrine
(sanctum sanctorum), is square in plan and rises up in a pyramidal shape. The tower has many levels rising proportionately.At the top of this
tower, there is a small roof in the shape of a dome. The pillar elements with mythical animal shapes (lions on the base) are extra features in
Pallava style. At the entrance, the gopuram walls are plastered. Its entrance wall has eight small shrines and a gopura, precursor to the main
gopura. At some later stage, the mandapa and the sanctuary were joined by an intermediate hall called the ardhamantapa, which is reported to
have marred the beauty of the temple to some extent. The temple is enclosed within walls in a rectangular layout.
Mahabalipuram
 Pancha Rathas (also known as Five Rathas or Pandava Rathas) is a monument complex at Mahabalipuram,
on the Coromandel Coast of the Bay of Bengal, in the Kancheepuram district of the state of Tamil Nadu, India.
Pancha Rathas is an example of monolithic Indian rock-cut architecture. The complex was carved during the reign
of King Narasimhavarman I (630–668 AD): the idea of realising monolithic buildings, an innovation in Indian
architecture, is attributed to this ruler. The complex is under the auspices of the Archaeological Survey of
India (ASI) and is part of the UNESCO World Heritage site inscribed by UNESCO as Group of Monuments at
Mahabalipuram.
 Each of the five monuments in the Pancha Rathas complex resembles a chariot (ratha), and each is carved over a
single, long stone or monolith, of granite which slopes in north-south direction with a slight incline.Though
sometimes mistakenly referred to as temples, the structures were never consecrated because they were never
completed following the death of Narasimhavarman I.The structures are named after the Pancha Pandavas and
their common wife Draupadi, of epic Mahabharatafame. In order of their size, they include the Dharmaraja
Ratha, Bhima Ratha, Arjuna Ratha, Nakula Sahadeva Ratha, and Draupadi Ratha.
Layout
Each of the five rathas is a monolith, carved whole from a rock outcropping of pink granite. They
are carved over a common mounted plinth which is north-south oriented with a slight slope.
Each has a different layout, such as square, rectangular, or apsidal plans. The largest measures
42 by 35 feet (13 m × 11 m), and the tallest is 40 feet (12 m) high.
Representations
The Pancha rathas represent the diversity of Dravidian architecture of the time and it is likely that
their original design traces back to wood constructions of temple chariots and were scale
models or templates for much bigger temples built subsequently in Tamil Nadu.Most of the
rathas are stated to be modelled on the Buddhist Viharas and Chaityas.
Design
The structural design and elevation are with towers or domes with single (ekathala) to triple
(trithala) towers, which present a unique exhibition of South Indian Dravidian architecture.
The chiseling done by the stone sculptors are occasional along joints between the stones. The
walls are arranged and sequentially partitioned. The projections and recesses in these walls
give the appearance of a set of shallow pilasters. The niches created in the walls are of
rectangular shape and have carved sculptures of gods, demi-gods and the kings. The skirting
around the images are of wild aquatic animals with "foliated tails and open jaws.The wall
pilasters have curved brackets, and columns on the porch provide support to an overhanging
eave; arch windows occasionally carved with images are located above them. The mouldings
culminate in parapets. The carvings above the eave overhangs are decorated roof forms in
miniature size, which are seen in rows all round each of the structure.
Brihadishvara temple
 BrihadishvaraTemple, also called Rajarajesvaram or Peruvudaiyar Koyil, is a Hindu temple dedicated to Shiva located
in Thanjavur,Tamil Nadu, India.It is one of the largest South Indian temples and an exemplary example of a fully realized Dravidian
architecture. It is called as Dhakshina Meru(Meru of south). Built by Raja Raja Chola Ibetween 1003 and 1010 AD, the temple is a part
of the UNESCOWorld Heritage Site known as the "Great Living Chola Temples", along with the Chola dynasty era Gangaikonda
Cholapuram temple and Airavatesvara temple that are about 70 kilometres (43 mi) and 40 kilometres (25 mi) to its northeast
respectively.
 The original monuments of this 11th century temple were built around a moat. It included gopura, the main temple, its massive
tower, inscriptions, frescoes and sculptures predominantly related to Shaivism, but also of Vaishnvaism and Shaktism traditions of
Hinduism. The temple was damaged in its history and some artwork is now missing. Additional mandapam and monuments were
added in centuries that followed. The temple now stands amidst fortified walls that were added after the 16th century.
 Built out of granite, the vimana tower above the sanctum is one of the tallest in South India.The temple has a massive colonnaded
prakara (corridor) and one of the largest Shiva lingas in India.It is also famed for the quality of its sculpture, as well as being the
location that commissioned the brass Nataraja – Shiva as the lord of dance, in 11th century. The complex includes shrines
for Nandi, Parvati, Kartikeya, Ganesha, Sabhapati, Dakshinamurti, Chandeshvara,Varahi and others.The temple is one of the most
visited tourist attractions in Tamil Nadu
 The Brihadeshvara temple plan and development utilizes the axial and symmetrical geometry rules. It is classified as Perunkoil (also called
Madakkoil), a big temple built on a higher platform of a natural or man-made mounds.The temple complex is a rectangle that is almost two
stacked squares, covering 240.79 metres (790.0 ft) east to west, and 121.92 metres (400.0 ft) north to south. In this space are five main
sections: the sanctum with the towering superstructure (sri vimana), the Nandi hall in front (Nandi-mandapam) and in between these the main
community hall (mukhamandapam), the great gathering hall (mahamandapam) and the pavilion that connects the great hall with the sanctum
(ardhamandapam).
 The temple complex integrates a large pillared and covered veranda (prakara) in its spacious courtyard, with a perimeter of about 450 metres
(1,480 ft) for circumambulation. Outside this pillared veranda there are two walls of enclosure, the outer one being defensive and added in
1777 CE by the French colonial forces with gun-holes with the temple serving as an arsenal. They made the outer wall high, isolating the
temple complex area. On its east end is the original main gopuram or gateway that is barrel vaulted. It is less than half the size of the main
temple's vimana. Additional structures were added to the original temple after the 11th century, such as a mandapa in its northeast corner and
additional gopurams (gateways) on its perimeters to allow people to enter and leave from multiple locations.Some of the shrines and
structures were added during the Pandya, Nayaka, Vijayanagara and Maratha era, before the colonial era started, and these builders respected
the original plans and symmetry rules. Inside the original temple courtyard, along with the main sanctum and Nandi-mandapam are two
major shrines, one for Kartikeya and for Parvati. The complex has additional smaller shrines.
 The Brihadisvara temple continued the Hindu temple traditions of South India by adopting architectural and decorative elements, but its scale
significantly exceeded the temples constructed before the 11th century. The Chola era architects and artisans innovated the expertise to scale
up and build, particularly with heavy stone and to accomplish the 63.4 metres (208 ft) high towering vimana
 The temple faces east, and once had a water moat around it. This has been filled up. The fortified wall now runs around
this moat. The two walls have ornate gateways called the gopurams. These are made from stone and display entablature.
The main gateways are on the east side. The first one is called the Keralantakan tiruvasal, which means the "sacred gate of
the Keralantakan". The word Keralantakan was the surname of king Rajaraja who built it. About a 100 metres (330 ft)
ahead is the inner courtyard gopuram called the Rajarajan tiruvasal. This is more decorated than the Keralantakan tiruvasal,
such as with its adhishthanam relief work narrating scenes from the Puranas the shrines are all signed to east-west and
north-west cardinal directions. The complex can be entered either on one axis through a five-story gopuram or with a
second access directly to the huge main quadrangle through a smaller free-standing gopuram. The gopuram of the main
entrance is 30 m high, smaller than the vimana.
 The main temple-related monuments and the great tower is in the middle of this courtyard.Around the main temple that
is dedicated to Shiva, are smaller shrines, most of which are aligned axially. These are dedicated to his consort Parvati, his
sons Subrahmanya and Ganesha, Nandi,Varahi, Karuvur deva (the guru of Rajaraja Chola), Chandeshvara and
Nataraja.The Nandi mandapam has a monolithic seated bull facing the sanctum. In between them are stairs leading to a
columned porch and community gathering hall, then an inner mandapa connecting to the pradakshina patha, or
circumambulation path. The Nandi (bull) facing the mukh-mandapam weighs about 25 tonnes. It is made of a single stone
and is about 2 m in height, 6 m in length and 2.5 m in width. The image of Nandi is a monolithic one and is one of the
largest in the country
Meenakshi Temple
 MeenakshiTemple, also referred to as Meenakshi Amman or Minakshi-SundareshwaraTemple,[1] is a historic Hindu temple
located on the southern bank of the Vaigai River in the temple city of Madurai,Tamil Nadu, India. It is dedicated to Meenakshi, a
form of Parvati, and her consort, Sundareshwar, a form of Shiva. The temple is at the center of the ancient temple city of Madurai
mentioned in the Tamil Sangam literature, with the goddess temple mentioned in 6th century CE texts.
 Though the temple has historic roots, most of the present campus structure was rebuilt after the 14th century CE, further repaired,
renovated and expanded in the 17th century by Thirumalai Nayak.In the early 14th century, the armies of Delhi Sultanate led by
Muslim Commander Malik Kafur plundered the temple, looted it of its valuables and destroyed the Madurai temple town along with
many other temple towns of South India.[ The contemporary temple is the result of rebuilding efforts started by the Vijayanagara
Empire rulers who rebuilt the core and reopened the temple. In the 16th century, the temple complex was further expanded and
fortified by the Nayak ruler Vishwanatha Nayakar and later others. The restored complex now houses 14 gopurams (gateway towers),
ranging from 45–50m in height, with the southern gopura tallest at 51.9 metres (170 ft). The complex has numerous sculpted
pillared halls such as Ayirakkal (1,000 pillar hall), Kilikoondu-mandapam, Golu-mandapam and Pudu-mandapam. Its shrines are
dedicated to Hindu deities and Shaivism scholars, with the vimanas above the garbhagrihas (sanctums) of Meenakshi and Sundaresvara
gilded with gold
The temple complex is spread over about 14 acres (5.7 ha).The courtyard is close to a square with each side of about 800 feet, but more
accurately a rectangle with one side about 50 feet longer. The complex has numerous shrines and mandapas, of which the most important and
largest are the two parallel shrines in the innermost courtyard, one for Meenakshi (B on the plan) and other for Sundareshvara (A).
Additionally, the complex has a golden lotus sacred pool (L) for pilgrims to bathe in, a thousand pillar hall choultry with extensive sculpture
(Q), the kalyana mandapa or wedding hall, many small shrines for Hindu deities and for scholars from the sangam (academy) history, buildings
which are religious schools and administrative offices, elephant sheds, equipment sheds such as those for holding the chariots used for
periodic processions and some gardens.The temple is embedded inside a commercial hub and traditional markets
Walls
The ancient temple complex was open. The courtyard walls were added over time in response to invasion and the plunder of the temple complex.
According to the text Thirupanimalai, the Vijayanagara commander Kumara Kampana after completing his conquest of Madurai, rebuilt the
pre-existing structure and built defensive walls around the temple in the 14th century. Lakana Nayakar added the defensive walls around the
first prakara (courtyard), as well as expanded and renovated the Mahamandapa and Meenakshi shrine about the middle of the 15th century.

Gopurams
The shrines of Meenakshi temple are embedded inside three walled enclosures and each of these have four gateways, the outer tower growing
larger and reaching higher to the corresponding inner one. The temple has 14 gopurams, the tallest of which is southern tower, rises to over
170 ft (52 m) and was rebuilt in the late 16th century. The oldest gopuram is the eastern one (I on plan), built by Maravarman Sundara
Pandyan during 1216-1238 Each gopuram is a multi-storeyed structure, covered with sculpture painted in bright hues. The outer gopurams are
high pyramidal tower serving as a landmark sign for arriving pilgrims, while the inner gopuram are smaller and serve as the entrance gateways
to various shrines
The sacred temple tank is called Porthamarai Kulam ("Pond with the golden lotus"). It is also
referred to as Adhi Theertham, Sivaganga and Uthama Theertham. The pool is 165 ft (50 m) by
120 ft (37 m) in size.The pool walls were painted with frescoes. Only a fraction of 17th and
18th-century paintings of Nayak period survives and one such portion is found in the small
portico on the western side of the tank. It depicts the marriage of Sundareswarar and
Meenkashi attended by Vijayaranga Chokkanatha and Rani Mangammal. The painting is
executed on a vivid red background, with delicate black linework and large areas of white,
green and ochre. The celestial couple is seated inside an architectural frame with a flowering
tree in the background.
Halls
 The temple complex has many mandapas (pillared-halls) built by kings and wealthy patrons
over the centuries. They are choultry or a place for the pilgrims to rest. Some of these
mandapas include
 Chinnappa Nayakkar
 Kambathadi mandapam
 Kilikoondu Mandapam
Srinangam
The Sri RanganathaswamyTemple or Thiruvarangam is a Hindu
temple dedicated to Ranganatha, a reclining form of the Hindu deity Vishnu,
located in Srirangam,Tiruchirapalli, Tamil Nadu, India. Constructed in
the Dravidian Architecture, this temple is glorified by Alvars in their Divya
Prabhanda and is one among the 108 Divya Desams dedicated to Vishnu.
The temple occupies an area of 155 acres (63 ha) with 50 shrines, 21 towers, 39
pavilions and many water tanks integrated into the complex making it the
world's largest functioning Hindu temple.The temple town is a significant
archaeological and epigraphical site, providing a historic window into the early
and mid medieval South Indian society and culture.
The temple is enclosed by 7 concentric enclosures with courtyards (termed prakarams or mathil suvar). Each layer has walls and gopurams, which were built or fortified in and
after the 16th century. These walls total 32,592 feet (9,934 m) or over six miles. The temple has 17 major gopurams (towers, 21 total), 39 pavilions, 50 shrines, 9 sacred
water pools, Ayiram kaal mandapam (a hall of 1000 pillars) and several small water bodies inside.
The temple is aligned to the north-south and east-west axis, on an island surrounded by the Kaveri River. The river has long been considered sacred, and called the Daksina
Ganga or the "Ganges of the South. The outer two prakarams (outer courtyard) are residential and markets with shops, restaurants and flower stalls.The five inner
courtyards have shrines to Vishnu and his various avatars such as Rama and Krishna. Major shrines are additionally dedicated to goddess Lakshmi and many saints of
Vaishnavism. In particular, these shrines celebrate and commemorate the Bhakti movement poet-saints called the Alvars, as well Hindu philosophers such as Ramanuja
and Vedantadesika of Sri Vaishnavism tradition.
Despite the construction of various mandapas and gopuras over a span of many centuries, the architecture of the Ranganathaswamy temple is one of the better illustrations of
Hindu temple planometric geometry per agama design texts in the Tamil tradition. According to George Michell, a professor and art historian on Indian architecture, the
regulating geometry and plan of Srirangam site takes on "a ritual dimension since all the architectural components, especially the focal gopuras and the most important
colonnades and mandapas, are arranged along the axes dictated by the cardinal directions". This alignment integrates the routes that devotees follow as they journey unto
the innermost sanctum.
Mandabam
 Thousand pillar mandapam is a theatre like structure made from granite. It was built during the Vijayanagara rule period. It has a central wide aisle with seven side aisles
on each side with pillars set in a square pattern.
 Sesharaya mandapam is the intricately carved hall built during the Nayaka rule period. It is found on the east side of the fourth prakaram courtyard. The northern side of
this community hall has 40 leaping animals with riders on their back, all carved out of monolithic pillars.
 Garuda Mandapam is named after the vahana (vehicle) of Vishnu, named Garuda. It is on the south side of the third prakaram courtyard. It too is dated to the Nayak rule
era. Inside the community hall, on its pillars, are portrait sculptures. In the middle is a free-standing seated Garuda figure, identifiable by his eagle-head, wings and him
facing the Vishnu shrine.
 The Hall of 1000 pillars (actually 953) is a fine example of a planned theatre-like structure and opposite to it is the "Sesha Mandap". The 1000-pillared hall made of
granite was constructed in the Vijayanagara period (1336–1565) on the site of the old temple
GOPURAM
There are 21 gopurams (tower gateways), among which the towering Rajagopuram (shrine of the main gateway) is the tallest temple tower in Asia. The 13-
tiered Rajagopuram was built in 1987 by Ahobhila Matha, a historic Srivaishnava Hindu monastery. This tower dominates the landscape for miles around, while the
remaining 20 gopurams were built between the 12th and early 17th centuries. The gopurams have pronounced projections in the middle of the long sides, generally with
openings on each of the successive levels. The Vellai gopura (white tower) on the east side of the fourth enclosure has a steep pyramidal superstructure that reaches a
height of almost 44 metres (144 ft).The structure of the Rajagopuram remained incomplete for over 400 years. Started during the reign of Achyuta Deva
Raya of Vijayanagara Empire, the construction stopped after the fall of Vijayanagara in late 16th century and wars thereafter. The Rajagopuram (the main gopuram) did
not reach its current height of 73 metres (240 ft) until 1987, when the 44th Jiyar (acharya, chief counsellor) of Ahobila Matha began collecting donations to complete it.
The whole structure was constructed in a span of eight years. The Rajagopuram was consecrated on 25 March 1987. The length and breadth at the base of the
Rajagopuram is 166 and 97 feet (50.6 and 29.6 m), while the length and breadth at the top is 98 and 32 feet (29.9 and 9.8 m). The 13 glistening copper 'kalasams' atop
the tower weigh 135 kg (298 lb) each, are 3.12 m (10 ft 3 in) high with a 1.56 m (5 ft 1 in) diameter vessel.
Granaries, tanks and other monuments
The Ranganathaswamy Temple complex includes huge medieval era Kottarams or granaries. These provided food reserves and security to the temple town and supplies to its
kitchen serving the needy travelers, pilgrims and local population. The temple has many other structures, participating and supporting various aspects of social life. Some
mandapams and temple compounds were devoted to education, both religious and secular such as of musicians and dancers. The temple inscriptions state that its
premises had an arokyashala (hospital) for those needing medical care. Several 11th and 12th century inscriptions describe a gift of land to support recitation of Hindu
texts in the temple and for feeding Sri Vaishnavas.
The temple has twelve major water tanks. Of these, the Surya Pushkarini (sun pool) and Chandra Pushkarani (moon pool) are two of the largest that harvest most of rain water.
They have a combined capacity of two million liters of water.
The temple has wooden monuments that is regularly maintained and used for festive processions. These have intricate carvings of Hindu legends, and some are plated with
silver or gold foils. The most significant of the temple chariots are the Garuda vahana, the Simha vahana, the Yanai vahana, the Kudirai vahana, the Hanumantha vahana,
the Yazhi vahana, the Sesha vahana, the Annapakshi vahana, the Otrai vahana and the Prabhai vahana
Chera’s
 Trichur
Vadakkunnathan Temple is an ancient Hindu temple dedicated
to Shiva at city of Thrissur, of Kerala state in India. This temple is a
classic example of the architectural style of Kerala and has monumental
towers on all four sides and also a kuttambalam. Mural paintings
depicting various episodes from Mahabharata can be seen inside the
temple.The shrines and the Kuttambalam display vignettes carved in
wood. The temple, along with the mural paintings, has been declared as
a National Monument by India.
 The main deity of this temple, Lord Shiva, is worshipped in the form of a huge lingam, which is covered under a mound of ghee, formed by
the daily abhishekam (ablution) with ghee over the years. A devotee looking into the sanctum can now see only a 16-foot-high (4.9 m) mound
of ghee embellished with thirteen cascading crescents of gold and three serpent hoods on top. According to traditional belief, this represents
the snow-clad Mount Kailash, the abode of Shiva. This is the only temple where the lingam is not visible. It is said that the ghee offered here
for centuries does not have any foul odour and it does not melt even during summer.
 In the outer temple, there are shrines for Krishna (Gosala Krishna; or Gopala Krishna ; Krishna as a cowherd), Shiva's
bull vahana (vehicle) Nandikeswara, Parashurama, Simhodara,Ayyappa (Shiva's son, especially venerated in Kerala), Vettekkaran (Shiva as a
hunter), Serpent deities and Adi Shankara. Outside the main temple, there are shrines for Lord Subrahmanya and Lord Ganapathi. Located on
the verandah of the Nalambalam is a large white bull Nandikeswara. It is inn the northern side that the main sanctum, a circular structure with
Shiva facing west and behind him, Parvati facing east, denoting their combined form Ardhanarishvara, is made. The two-storied rectangular
shrine of the god Rama facing west is located in the south. Between these two sanctums (srikovils) stands a third one, circular and double-
storied in shape, which is dedicated to Shankaranarayana, the combined form of Shiva and Vishnu, facing west. There
are mukhamandapams (halls) in front of all the three central shrines.The two important murals in the
temple, Vasukisayana and Nrithanatha (Nataraja), are worshipped regularly. Ganesha shrine is positioned facing the temple kitchen. The
offering of Appam (sweetened rice cake fried in ghee) to him is one of the most important offerings at the temple. Propitiating him here is
believed to be a path to prosperity and wealth.
Thiruvananthapuram
 Padmanabhaswamy Temple is located in Thiruvananthapuram, Kerala, India. The temple is built
in an intricate fusion of the indigenous Kerala style and the Tamil style(kovil) of architecture
associated with the temples located in the neighbouring state of Tamil Nadu, featuring high walls,
and a 16th-century Gopuram.While the Moolasthanam of the temple is the Ananthapuram
Temple in Kumbala in Kasargod District, architecturally to some extent, the temple is a replica of
the Adikesava Perumal temple located in Thiruvattar, Kanyakumari District.
 The temple lays over a platform. The platforms in front of the vimanam and where the deity rests
are both carved out of a single massive stone and hence called "Ottakkal-mandapam". On the
orders of Marthanda Varma (1706–58), the Ottakkal-mandapam was cut out of a rock at Thirumala,
about 4 miles (6.4 km) north of the temple. It measured 20 square feet (1.9 m2; 190 dm2;
19,000 cm2) in area by 2.5 feet (30 in; 7.6 dm; 76 cm) thick and was placed in front of the deity in
the month of Edavom 906 M.E. (1731 CE).
 Gopuram
 The foundation of the present gopuram was laid in 1566.The temple has a 100-foot (30 m), 7-
tier gopuram made in the Pandyan style.The temple stands by the side of a tank, named Padma
Theertham(meaning the lotus spring). The temple has a corridor with 365 and one-quarter
sculptured granite-stone pillars with elaborate carvings which stands out to be an ultimate
testimonial for theVishwakarma sthapathis in sculpting this architectural masterpiece. This
corridor extends from the eastern side into the sanctum sanctorum. An 80-foot (24 m)
flagstaff stands in front of the main entry from the prakaram(closed precincts of a temple). The
ground floor under the gopuram (main entrance in the eastern side) is known as the 'Nataka
Sala' where the famous temple art Kathakali was staged in the night during the ten-
day uthsavam (festival) conducted twice a year, during the Malayalam months of Meenam and
Thulam.