Documente Academic
Documente Profesional
Documente Cultură
Investment Centers
and Transfer Pricing
McGraw-Hill/Irwin Copyright © 2009 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
Learning
Objective
1
McGraw-Hill/Irwin Copyright © 2009 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
Delegation of Decision Making
(Decentralization)
Decision Making
Top
is pushed down.
M anagem ent
M i d d le M i d d le
M anagem ent M anagem ent
S u p e r v is o r S u p e r v is o r S u p e r v is o r S u p e r v is o r
Advantages
Allows organization Uses specialized
to respond more knowledge and
quickly to events. skills of managers.
13-4
Decentralization
Challenge
Goal Congruence:
Managers of the subunits
make decisions that achieve
top-management goals.
13-5
Learning
Objective
2
McGraw-Hill/Irwin Copyright © 2009 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
Measuring Performance
in Investment Centers
Investment Center
managers make
decisions that
affect both profit
and invested
capital. Corporate Headquarters
13-7
Return on Investment (ROI)
Income
ROI =
Invested Capital
Sales
Sales Capital
Capital
Margin
Margin Turnover
Turnover
13-8
Return on Investment (ROI)
Income $ 30,000
Sales Revenue $ 500,000
Invested Capital $ 200,000
13-9
Return on Investment (ROI)
$30,000 $500,000
ROI = ×
$500,000 $200,000
13-10
Economic Value Added
Economic value added tells us how much
shareholder wealth is being created.
13-11
Economic Value Added
Investment center’s after-tax operating income
– Investment charge
= Economic Value Added
( Investment
center’s
total assets
–
Investment
center’s
current liabilities )
Weighted
average
cost of capital
( After-tax Market
cost of value
debt of debt
) (
Cost of Market
equity value
capital of equity
)
Market Market
value value
of debt of equity
13-12
Economic Value Added
The Atlantic Division of Suncoast Food Centers reported
the following results for the most recent period:
13-13
Economic Value Added
13-14
Economic Value Added
$6,750,000 × (1 – 30%)
13-15
Learning
Objective
3
McGraw-Hill/Irwin Copyright © 2009 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
Improving R0I
Decrease
Expenses
Increase Lower
Sales Invested
Prices Capital
13-18
Return on Investment (ROI)
$42,000 $600,000
ROI = ×
$600,000 $200,000
13-19
ROI - A Major Drawback
• As division manager at Winston, Inc., your
compensation package includes a salary plus
bonus based on your division’s ROI -- the higher
your ROI, the bigger your bonus.
• The company requires an ROI of 15% on all new
investments -- your division has been producing an
ROI of 30%.
• You have an opportunity to invest in a new project
that will produce an ROI of 25%.
As division manager would you
invest in this project?
13-20
Residual Income
Investment center profit
– Investment charge
= Residual income
Investment capital
× Imputed interest rate
= Investment charge
Investment center’s
minimum required
rate of return
13-21
Residual Income
13-22
Residual Income
Investment center profit = $25,000
– Investment charge = 20,000
= Residual income = $ 5,000
Investment center’s
minimum required
rate of return
13-23
Learning
Objective
4
McGraw-Hill/Irwin Copyright © 2009 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
Residual Income
• As a manager at
Flower Co., would you
invest the $100,000 if
you were evaluated
using residual income?
• Would your decision be
different if you were
evaluated using ROI?
13-25
Residual Income
Residual income encourages managers to
make profitable investments that would
be rejected by managers using ROI.
13-26
Learning
Objective
5
McGraw-Hill/Irwin Copyright © 2009 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
Issues: Measuring Investment
Capital
Three issues must be considered before
we can properly measure the investment
capital:
What assets should be included?
1. Total assets.
2. Total productive assets.
3. Total assets less current liabilities.
4. Only the assets controllable by the manager
being evaluated.
13-28
Measuring Investment Capital
13-31
Gross or Net Book Value
Net Gross
Operating Net Book Book
Year Profits Value ROI Value ROI
1 $ 15,000 $ 90,000 16.67% $ 100,000 15.00%
2 15,000 80,000 18.75% 100,000 15.00%
3 15,000 70,000 21.43% 100,000 15.00%
13-34
Other Issues in Segment
Performance Evaluation
• Short-run performance measures versus
long-run performance measures.
• Importance of nonfinancial information.
– Market position.
– Product leadership.
– Productivity.
– Employee attitudes.
13-35
Measuring Performance in
Nonprofit Organizations
Since
Since income
income isis not
not the
the primary
primary
measure
measure ofof performance
performance in in
nonprofit
nonprofit organizations,
organizations,
performance
performance measures
measures other
other than
than
ROI
ROI and
and residual
residual income
income areare used.
used.
13-36
Transfer Pricing
McGraw-Hill/Irwin Copyright © 2009 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
Transfer Pricing
The
The ideal
ideal transfer
transfer price
price allows
allows
each
each division
division manager
manager to to make
make
decisions
decisions that
that maximize
maximize thethe
company’s
company’s profit,
profit, while
while
attempting
attempting to to maximize
maximize his/her
his/her
own
own division’s
division’s profit.
profit.
13-40
General-Transfer-Pricing Rule
13-41
Scenario I: No Excess Capacity
• The Battery Division makes a standard 12-volt
battery.
Production capacity 300,000 units
Selling price per battery $40 (to outsiders)
Variable costs per battery $18
Fixed costs per battery $7 (at 300,000 units)
• The Battery division is currently selling 300,000
batteries to outsiders at $40. The Auto Division
can use 100,000 of these batteries in its X-7
model.
$22 Contribution
Transfer $18 variable
price = cost per battery + lost if outside
sales given up
Transfer
price = $40 per battery
13-43
Scenario I: No Excess Capacity
Transfer Transfer
will not $40 will
occur. transfer occur.
price
13-44
Scenario I: No Excess Capacity
General Rule
When the selling division is operating
at capacity, the transfer price should
be
set at the market price.
13-45
Scenario II: Excess Capacity
• The Battery Division makes a standard 12-volt
battery.
Production capacity 300,000 units
Selling price per battery $40 (to outsiders)
Variable costs per battery $18
Fixed costs per battery $7 (at 300,000 units)
• The Battery division is currently selling 150,000
batteries to outsiders at $40. The Auto Division
can use 100,000 of these batteries in its X-7
model. It can purchase them for $38 from an
outside supplier.
Transfer
price = $18 per battery
13-47
Scenario II: Excess Capacity
General Rule
$18 $39
transfer transfer
price price
13-49
Learning
Objective
7
McGraw-Hill/Irwin Copyright © 2009 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
Setting Transfer Prices
The value placed on transfer goods is
used to make it possible to transfer
goods between divisions while allowing
them to retain their autonomy.
13-51
Goal Congruence
Conflicts may arise between the
company’s interests and an individual
manager’s interests when transfer-
price-based performance measures are
used.
13-52
Setting Transfer Prices
Conflicts may be resolved by . . .
13-53
Setting Transfer Prices
Top management may become swamped
with pricing disputes causing division
managers to lose autonomy.
You really
don’t have any Now, here is what the two
choice!
of you are going to do.
Ij
pa ust
y w
th $6 on
at 5 ’ t
p a f or
rt!
13-54
Centrally Established
Transfer Prices
As
As aa general
general rule,
rule, aa market
market price-based
price-based
transfer
transfer pricing
pricing policy
policy contains
contains thethe
following
following guidelines
guidelines .. .. ..
1.
1. The
The transfer
transfer price
price is
is usually
usually set
set at
at aa
discount
discount from
from the
the cost
cost toto acquire
acquire thethe item
item
on
on the
the open
open market.
market.
2.
2. The
The selling
selling division
division may
may elect
elect to
to transfer
transfer or
or
to
to continue
continue to to sell
sell to
to the
the outside.
outside.
13-55
Negotiating the Transfer Price
AA system
system where
where transfer
transfer prices
prices are
are arrived
arrived at
at
through
through negotiation
negotiation between
between managers
managers of of
buying
buying and
and selling
selling divisions.
divisions.
Much
Much management
management
time
time is
is used
used in
in the
the
negotiation
negotiation process.
process. Negotiated
Negotiated price
price may
may not
not
be
be in
in the
the best
best interest
interest of
of
overall
overall company
company operations.
operations.
13-56
Cost-Based Transfer Prices
variable.
13-57
An International Perspective
13-58
Learning
Objective
8
McGraw-Hill/Irwin Copyright © 2009 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
Behavioral Issues:
Risk Aversion and Incentives
The design of a managerial performance
evaluation system using financial performance
measures involves a trade-off between:
Risks imposed on the
Incentives for the manager because
manager to act in financial performance
the organization’s
And measures are only
interests. partially controlled
by the manager.
13-60
Goal Congruence and
Internal Control Systems
A well-designed internal control system
includes a set of procedures to prevent
these major lapses in responsible behavior:
– Fraud.
– Corruption.
– Financial Misrepresentation.
– Unauthorized Action.
13-61
End of Chapter 13
Let’s transfer some of your
capital to me so that my rate
of return will be higher!
13-62