As the sun is the source of energy for all life forms on Earth so is

the soil being the essential medium for nurturing all terrestrial life
forms and is one of the most complex features produced in nature.
It is a mixture of weathered mineral particles, decaying organic
matter, living organisms, gases and liquid solutions. In other words
we can say soil is a zone of plant growth where plant nutrients are
stored through the interaction of diverse factors such as water, air,
sunlight, rocks, plants and animals. However, soil functions as a
fundamental interface where atmosphere, lithosphere, hydrosphere
and biosphere meet. Soils are mostly inorganic in nature and
therefore are usually classed as part of the lithosphere though its
relationship with the other three realms of the environment is both
intimate and complex.
The early concepts of soil were based on ideas developed by a
German chemist, Justus von Liebig (1803–1873), and modified and
refined by agricultural scientists who worked on samples of soil in
laboratories, greenhouses, and on small field plots. The soils were
rarely examined below the depth of normal tillage. These chemists held
the "balance-sheet" theory of plant nutrition. Soil was considered a
more or less static storage bin for plant nutrients—the soils could be
used and replaced. This concept still has value when applied within the
framework of modern soil science, although a useful understanding of
soils goes beyond the removal of nutrients from soil by harvested crops
and their return in manure, lime, and fertilizer.
The early geologists generally accepted the balance-sheet theory of soil
fertility and applied it within the framework of their own discipline. They
described soil as disintegrated rock of various sorts granite, sandstone, glacial
till, and the like. They went further, however, and described how the weathering
processes modified this material and how geologic processes shaped it into
landforms such as glacial moraines, alluvial plains, loess plains, and marine
terraces. Geologist Nathaniel Shaler (1841–1906) monograph (1891) on the
origin and nature of soils summarized the late 19th century geological concept
of soils.
Early soil surveys were made to help farmers locate soils responsive to
different management practices and to help them decide what crops and
management practices were most suitable for the particular kinds of soil on
their farms. Many of the early workers were geologists because only geologists
were skilled in the necessary field methods and in scientific correlation
appropriate to the study of soils. They conceived soils as mainly the weathering
products of geologic formations, defined by landform and lithologic
composition. Most of the soil surveys published before 1910 were strongly
influenced by these concepts. Those published from 1910 to 1920 gradually
added greater refinements and recognized more soil features but retained
fundamentally geological concepts.
 The development of soil is initiated by the physical and chemical
disintegration of rocks that is exposca to the earth's surface that is under the
action of the atmospheric elements and the action of water percolating down
the surface. The basic result of weathering is the weakening and breakdown
of solid rock, the fragmentation of coherent rock masses forming regolith.
Normally regolith has a crude gradation of particle sizes with the largest and
least fragmented pieces at the bottom. Usually above the regolith lies the
soil. Soil normally consists of an abundance of living· plant roots, a variety of
death and rotting plant parts in varying stages of decomposition, an
unbelievable quantity of microscopic plants and animals both living and
dead, and variable amount of air and water.
 Thus soils are formed from hard (soil) rock masses, loose unconsolidated
transported materials and organic residue. The weathering of rock masses
forms the earth's loose materials such as stones, gravels, sands, silts, clay
and soluble ions. The term soil is derived from the Latin word "solum".
According to soil scientists, soil means that part of the earth's crust that have
been changed as a result of soil forming processes. As such, soils can be
defined in a number of ways depending on the type of study it relates with.
However, the two most common and simple definitions of soil are as follows:
(i) it is derived as the consolidated mineral material as the immediate
surface of the earth that serves as a natural medium for the growth of plants.
(ii) it is a body subjected to a natural and historical development, which
came into being on the surface of the earth as a result of a complex
combination of the interaction of rocks, the organic macro and micro
organisms, flora and fauna, climate, local relief and the production activities
of man.
Sandy Soil

The first type of soil is sand. It consists of small particles of weathered rock.
Sandy soils are one of the poorest types of soil for growing plants because it
has very low nutrients and poor in holding water, which makes it hard for the
plant’s roots to absorb water. This type of soil is very good for the drainage
system. Sandy soil is usually formed by the breakdown or fragmentation of
rocks like granite, limestone, and quartz.
Silt Soil

Silt, which is known to have much smaller particles compared to the sandy
soil and is made up of rock and other mineral particles which are smaller
than sand and larger than clay. It is the smooth and quite fine quality of the
soil that holds water better than sand. Silt is easily transported by moving
currents and it is mainly found near the river, lake, and other water bodies.
The slit soil is more fertile compared to the other three types of soil.
Therefore it is also used in agricultural practices to improve soil fertility.
Clay Soil

Clay is the smallest particles amongst the other two types of soil. The
particles in this soil are tightly packed together with each other with very little
or no airspace. This soil has very good water storage qualities and making
hard for moisture and air to penetrate into it. It is very sticky to the touch
when wet, but smooth when dried. Clay is the densest and heaviest type of
soil which do not drain well or provide space for plant roots to flourish.
Loamy Soil

Loam is the fourth type of soil. It is a combination of sand, silt, and clay such
that the beneficial properties from each is included. For instance, it has the
ability to retain moisture and nutrients, hence, it is more suitable for farming.
This soil is also referred to as an agricultural soil as it includes an equilibrium
of all three types of soil materials being sandy, clay, and silt and it also
happens to have hummus. Apart from these, it also has higher calcium and
pH levels because of its inorganic origins.
Composition

The composition of the soil is placed into four different categories: inorganic
material, organic material, water and air. Inorganic material is any compound
that is not derived from animal or plant sources. Carbon atoms are not present
in inorganic compounds. Organic material is composed of animal and plant
sources. Carbon atoms are present in organic compounds. The amount of
water and air particles that are present in the soil will also determine it’s
composition.
Color

The color of the soil is another way to characterize soil. Soil that is black or a
rich, deep brown is high in organic content. This soil is very fertile and is ideal
for planting and farming. The nutrients in the soil are rich. Yellow, red, or
orange soil indicates that it is rich in iron. Soil that has a light gray or white tint
has a lot of calcium or silica.
Texture
The texture is the feel of the soil and generally refers to the clay, silt and sand
content. There is a texture triangle that scientists use to determine the
characteristics of soil. According to the texture triangle, the soil is considered
clay if it is less than 0.002 mm. It is silt if the soil is between 0.002 and 0.05
mm. The texture is sand if it is between 0.05 and 2.0 mm.
Structure
Structure is the shape, size and organization of peds. A ped is a soil particle.
Soil that has particles that are horizontal, plate-like or flat are called platy. Soil
with long, vertical particles that are bound by flat or slightly rounded vertical
faces are prismatic and columnar. Particles that are block-like or somewhat
square are called blocky. Small, rounded particles are granular.
Soil Water
Soil water means the infiltration which includes the rate and capacity. How fast
the water moves through the soil and how much water the soil can hold at
saturation level will help determine the type of soil. There are several forms of
soil water and includes gravity water, capillary water, field capacity, wilting
point, hygroscopic water and the available water capacity.
Organic Matter
Organic matter can be categorized into two forms: litter and humus. Litter also
referred to as litter fall, plant litter, tree litter, soil litter or duff. This refers to dead
plant materials that are on the ground and provides nutrients to the top layer of
the soil. Humus is any organic materials that are stable, they will no longer
break down and will remain in their current state for several thousand years.
Chemistry
Soil is classified by the acidity and alkalinity of the matter. It is measured in pH
units and is determined by the amount of hydrogen ion concentration within the
soil. The pH measurements are on a scale from 0 to 14, a pH of 7 means that it
is neutral. A pH level of 0 to 7 measures the acidity of the soil. A pH level of 7 to
14 measures the alkalinity of the soil.
Classification systems are used to group soils according to their order of
performance under given set of physical conditions. Soils that are grouped in
order of performance for one set of physical conditions will not necessarily have
the same order of performance under some other physical conditions.
Therefore, number of classification systems have been developed depending
on the intended purpose of the system. Soil classification has proved to be a
very useful tool to the soil engineer. It gives general guidelines in an empirical
manner for making use of the field experience of others. Soil may be broadly
classified as follows:

 Classification based on grain size

 Textural classification
 AASHTO classification system
 Unified soil classification system
Grain size classification system:
Grain size classification systems were based on grain size. In this system the
terms clay, silt, sand and gravel are used to indicate only particle size and not
to signify nature of soil type. There are several classification systems fin use,
but commonly used systems are shown here.
Textural Classification:
The classification of soil exclusively based on particle size and their percentage
distribution is known as textural classification system. This system specifically
names the soil depending on the percentage of sand, silt and clay. The
triangular charts are used to classify soil by this system.
Example #1: Classify the following soil by the USDA Textural Classification
System. Given: % gravel = 18; % sand = 51; % silt = 22; % clay = 9;

Solution:
rel. % sand = 51/82 = 62% rel. % silt = 22/82 = 27% rel. % clay = 9/82 = 11%

Using these values in USDA chart −−> sandy loam However, due to the
presence of 18% gravel in the soil, it is called "gravelly sandy loam."
Example #2: Classify the following soil by the USDA Textural Classification
System. Given: % gravel = 0; % sand = 30; % silt = 30; % clay = 40;

Solution: rel. % sand = 30/100 = 30% rel. % silt = 30/100 = 30% rel. % clay =
40/100 = 40%

Using these values in USDA chart −−> clay loam

AASHTO classification system:
AASHTO classification, is otherwise known as PRA classification system. It
was originally developed in 1920 by the U.S. Bureau of Public Roads for the
classification of soil for highway subgrade use. This system is developed based
on particle size and plasticity characteristics of soil mass. After some revision,
this system was adopted by the AASHTO in 1945. In this system the soils are
divided into seven major groups. Some of the major groups further divided into
subgroups. A soil is by proceeding from left to right on the classification chart to
find first the group into which the soil test data will fill. Soil having fine fractions
are further classified based on their group index. The group index is defined by
the following equation.
 Group index = (F – 35)[0.2 + 0.005 (LL – 40)] + 0.01(F – 15)(PI – 10)
 F – Percentage passing 0.075mm size
 LL – Liquid limit
 PI – Plasticity index
 When the group index value is higher, the quantity of the material is poorer.
Example #3: Classify the following soil by the AASHTO System.

Given: % passing No. 10 = 100; % passing No.40 = 80; % passing No. 200 =
58; LL = 30; PI = 10.

Solution:, the group classification is A−4. From the given data, F=58. GI =
(F−35) [0.2 + 0.005(LL−40)] + 0.01(F−15)(PI−10) = (23)[0.2 + 0.005(−10)] +
0.01(43)(0) = 3
total volume = volume of soilds + volume of
voids
V=Vs+Vv
volume of voids = volume of water + volume of
air
Vv=Vw+Va
total weight = weight of solids + weight of water
W=Ws+Ww
γdry = Gs × γw/1 + e
γdry = γmoist/(1 + %w)
γdry = Wdry/Vtotal
γsolid = Wdry/Vsolid
γmoist = Gs × γw(1 + %w)/1 + e
γsat = Gs × γw (1 + e Gs )/1 + e → (S = 1)
S. e = Gs . W
S = Vwater/Vvoids
wsat = e/Gs
w = Weight of water/Weight of solid = Ww/Ws = (Wwet−Wdry)/Wdry ×
100%
e = Vvoids/Vsolid = (VT − Vs)/Vs
n = e/1 + e
n = Vvoids/Vtotal
Gs = γsolid/γwater
γsolid = Wdry/Vsolid
γwater = Wwater/Vwater

γwater = 9.81KN/m3 = 62.4Ib/ft3 , 1ton = 2000Ib , 1yd3 =27ft3

If a soil sample has a dry unit weight of 19.5
KN/m3 , moisture content of 8% and a specific
gravity of solids particles is 2.67. Calculate the
following: a) The void ratio. b) Moisture and
saturated unit weight. c) The mass of water to be
added to cubic meter of soil to reach 80%
saturation. d) The volume of solids particles when
the mass of water is 25 grams for saturation.
A soil sample has avoid ratio of 0.72, moisture content =
12% and Gs = 2.72 determine the following: a) Dry unit
weight, moist unit weight (KN/m3 ). b) Weight of water in
KN/m3 to be added for 80% degree of saturation. c) Is it
possible to reach a water content of 30% without change
the present void ratio.
The terms density and unit weight are used interchangeably in soil
mechanics. Though not critical, it is important that we know it. To find
the formula for density, divide the formula of unit weight by gravitational
constant g (acceleration due to gravity). But instead of having g in the
formula, use the density of water replacing the unit weight of water.

ρ=m/V

Density of water and gravitational constant

ρw = 1000 kg/m3
ρw = 1 g/cc
ρw = 62.4 lb/ft3
g = 9.81 m/s2
g = 32.2 ft/sec2
Calculate the volume of a soil sample that is
12% moisture, weighs 650 g and has a bulk
density of 1.3 g/cm3
Calculate the bulk density of a rectangular
soil sample with dimensions 12 cm by 6 cm
by 4 cm, that is 15% moisture content and
weighs 320 g.
Relative density is an index that quantifies the state of
compactness between the loosest and densest possible
state of coarse-grained soils.

Dr=emax−e/emax−emin