COMMUNICATION

Introduction
Communication include not merely transference of
information in the conventional sense but also expression
of feelings , wishes , commands and desires
Communication is the process of transmitting an idea
from one point to another
Derived from the latin word “Communicare” means to
share or participate
Communication is the exchange of facts, ideas, opinion or
emotions by two or more persons
 Definition
Communication is the mechanism in which all human relations exists and
develop. All the symbols of mind together with the means of conveying
through space and preserving them in time
C.H. Coole
Communication involves social interaction through message
Lee Thayer
Communication is the imparting conveying or exchanging of ideas an
knowledge whether by speech, writing or signs
Oxford English Dictionary
Communication _the transfer of thoughts and messages as contrasted
with the transportation of goods and persons. the basis form of
communication are by signs(sight) and sound (hearing ).
Columbia Encyclopaedia
It is a process in which A communicates B through channel C to D with
the effect E
Schramm
 Definition
Communication is the discriminatory response to an
organism to a stimulus. communication occurs when some
environment disturbance (the stimulus) impinges on the
organism and the organism does something about it. If the
stimulus has been ignored by organism then there is no
communication . The message that gets no response is not a
communication
S.S. Stevens
Communication is a sub category under interaction,
namely the form of integration which takes place through
symbols. The symbols may be gestures, pictorial , plastic or
verbal or any other which would serve as stimuli to
behaviour
George Lundberg
 Process of communication
Communication process is a constant symbolic
interaction of sharing, exchanging and coordinating
meanings
Communication is a continued process by which we
assign and convey meaning in an attempt to create shared
understanding
Message must be conveyed through some media, message
should be understood by receiver as intended by the
sender
Thus communication is a two way process and incomplete
without a feedback
 Components of communication process

Message
Sender Encoding Decoding Receiver
Media

Feedback Response
 Components of communication process

Thought
Information in the mind of the sender in the form of
concept, ideas, information or feelings
Context :
Every communication proceeds with context. It may be
physical, social, chronological or cultural
Sender
 Person who transmits the message is called a sender or
transmitter.
 Sender may be a person, group of persons or organization
 Views, backgrounds, approach, skills , competencies and
knowledge of sender has great impact on the message
 Components of communication process

 Encoder
Process of converting information that has to be sent , into a format
which receiver can understand
 Message
Key idea that sender want to convey
 Media
It is the means used to transmit the message
Appropriate medium is essential for effective transmission of the message
and its correct interpretation
 Decoding
Interpretation of the transmitted message
 Recipient
Recipient is the person to whom message is aimed, intended or targeted
 Feedback
Main component of communication process and it helps the sender in
conforming the correct interpretation of the message by recipient
 Types of Communication
1. One – way communication
2. Two way communication
3. Non- verbal Communication
4. Verbal communication
5. Informal communication
6. Formal communication
 Downward communication’
 Upward communication
 Horizontal communication
 Diagonal communication
7. Scholarly communication
 Media of communication

Media are storage and transmission

tools used to store and deliver
information or data
Two or more media can be use
together for effective dissemination of the
information
 Media of communication

Traditional Contemporary
Or Or
Documentary Non- Documentary

Non-Print
Audio Visual

Books/Journals
Thesis/Dissertations Digital Non-digital
Patents/standards
Reports

Microfilm
Web Page,
Microfishe
CD,DVD
Filmstrips
 Channels of Communication
Informal Channel
Formal Channel
 Face to Face discussion
 Research Associations
 Learned Societies and Documentary sources
Professional Institutions
 Primary sources
 Industrial Liaison officers
 Secondary sources
 Private Consultants
 Tertiary sources
 Oral communication
 Open forum
Mass media
 Personal Correspondence Professional conference
 Information intermediaries
 Grape vine communication
 Invisible college
 Technological gatekeeper
 Informal Channels
Information available through this channel are current and
up to date.
They are not published or recorded documents of
knowledge.
These are information sources that are not available in the
form of documents.
Non Documentary Sources are otherwise known as paperless
sources.
There is instant feedback
Informal sources of communication includes Non
Documentary Sources of Information.
 Oral Communication

It involves a direct interaction between the source of

information and the recipient.
It includes
1. One person to one person
e.g. a talk face- to-face or by phone
2. One person to several
e.g. a group of committee meeting.
3. One person to many
e.g. a speech at a meeting.
4. Several persons to several
e.g. group discussion, conversation.
Personal Correspondence
It is a written form of communication.
It is between two persons e.g. letter writing
 Invisible Colleges
Informal Communication may occur among scientists
working in the same institution or among scientists in
different institutions working in the same field, thus an
informal, personal information network develops where
by a one way or two way communication takes place.
They may discuss current work in correspondence or at a
conference and possible collaborating on various joint
projects.
It helps to propagate nascent thought quickly as the
communication is direct.
 Technological Gatekeeper
Persons to whom people will approach when they are in
need of information and such persons will be willing to
share information with others.
They must be update, approachable, pleasing,
knowledgeable.
Research Associations
They collect and provide information services to all
member firms.
These members firms are known to each other.
There is a possibility of person to person , firm to firm
discussions and exchange of data or documents.
 Learned Societies and Professional Institutions
The headquarters staff help members personally on many
professional matters.
They may direct the queries sometime to the expert
members of the staff.

Industrial Liaison officers

These officers provide particularly the preliminary
information needed to put a firm on the right track and for
information which needs to be given personally and
supported by practical advice in order to be fully effective.
Private Consultants
Senior scientists often start consultancy services either
after retirement from active service or by quitting their
job after having gained expertise and knowledge.
These people equip themselves with up-to-date
information.
 Formal channel
These channels are in accordance with prescribed or
customary forms. This communication channel
follow a chain of command.
They are recorded and meant for large audience
They are not frequently update , has delayed
feedback and publically switched
 Documentary sources

Primary Secondary Tertiary

• Year book and
 Periodicals  Indexing service
directory
 Research reports  Abstracting service • Bibliography
 Conference  Review of progress • Location list of
proceedings  Reference work periodicals
• List of abstracting and
 Patents  Treatise indexing service
 Standards  Monographs • Guides
 Trade literature  Text book • List of research in
 Theses progress
• Guides to professional
organizations
 Barriers of communication
Effective communication is achieved when the
message sent is received accurately by the
recipient
Various hurdles or barriers can affect the
communication process
Barriers of communication is all those
Hindrances which distort the message and makes
the communication ineffective and incomplete
Obstacles that prevent proper flow of
information or communication
Major Barriers in communication
Physical Barriers

Semantic Barriers

Organizational Barriers

Psychological or emotional Barriers

Personal Barriers

Presentation Barriers

Financial Barriers

Technological Barriers

Communication Barriers
Physical barriers
Noise
Distance
Time
Information explosion
Language
SOCIAL AND PSYCHOLOGICAL

 Psychological :there are a number of Psychological

complexities of users which prevent them from getting
proper information.These are:

 wriness and reluctance to cooperate with information

specialists

 Unwillingness

 Unhappiness over disciplin and procedure

 Question of prestige
 Organizational Barriers

 There are three basic institutional

impediments.These are:

 Status (of a person and organization)

 Structure(hierarchical)

 Secrecy(fear of losing)
FINANCIAL
 Financial barriers increase the cost of information.

 Rising costs in production of document

 postal and other transportation charges
 Costs in running libraries and import controls
 Dwindling budget
 Royalities
Presentation Barriers
The major technical impidiments are:
 Method of explanation
 Poor presentation of documentary products
 Less number of copies
 Lack of special equipment
 complicated systems
 Lack of awareness
 Under-qualified staff
 Lack of proper organizational structure
 Lack of bibliographical control
LINGUISTICS

 Though language were ostensibly created to facilitate

communication,quite often they become the major hindrance to the
communication of scientific and technical information.

 National and international documentation centres started maintaining

permanent translators for all major languages.

 Exclusive translation centres at international and national level is a

recent phenomenon.

 Jargon
 Neologism
 Synonyms
 acronyms
SOCIAL AND PSYCHOLOGICAL

 Psychological :there are a number of Psychological

complexities of users which prevent them from getting
proper information.These are:

 wriness and reluctance to cooperate with information

specialists

 Unwillingness

 Unhappiness over disciplin and procedure

 Question of prestige
 Personal barriers
Mistrust
Lack of Ability
Attention
 Shyness
 Self-consciousness and selfishness
 Ignorance
 Tradition boundedness
Prejudice
Attitude
Technological Illiteracy
ADMINISTRATIVE AND POLITICAL

Certain institutions have restrictions with regard

to flow of information.Relationship between
government to government, institution to
instistution also regulates the communication of
information.
procedural problems
 Other barriers
Pollution
Propoganda
Rehash
Errors
Over production
Delay
Media problems
Coding schemes
Language barrier between man & man , Man &Machine
Inadequate information
 Communication Models
A model is a systematic representation of an object or event in
idealized and abstract form
A model should provide for some form of measurement of the
system that will work analogously within the model and within the
actual system being observed
They represent the most important elements of real world and
dynamics of their relationship to one another
Communication is a complex process that becomes more complex
with ever changing communication phenomenon
So it is imperative to present the communication process in a simple
and generalized way to explain and understand the structure and
function of communication
Communication model is a simplified representation of a process
that can be used to help understand the nature of communication in
a social setting
 Types of communication models
Action
Interaction

Stages Transactional

Convergence

Communication Linear
Model Types
Non - Linear

Symbolic , Physical,
Mental
forms Verbal , Iconic,
Analog , Mathematical
 Types
Linear model
Unidirectional model that portrays the message flow
from speaker to audience with or without effects
Most of the early models of 40’s and 50’s were linear
models
They are foundation models
 Non linear Model
• Message flow is bidirectional or Multidirectional
• Models are circular
• They follow the cybernetic principles .
• major elements of cybernetic explanation are
information, feedback, network and purpose
 Types
 Action Model
 Are sender oriented
 They emphasize how a sender must construct a message to get the
desired result
 Models work for media channels
 Interaction Model
 Focused on interaction and relatedness between the sender and receiver
 Concept of linear feedback was added so that sender can maintain
control over the intended effects and adjust future message
 Concept of information and redundancy
 Transactional Model
 View communication as a simultaneous response , both sender and
receiver generate message or feedback in many forms such as body
gestures, postures, facial expression, eye movement , hand gestures
 Types
Convergence Model
 Based on principles of cybernetics
 Four most elements of cybernetic explanation are
information, feedback, network and purpose
 The analytical concept of interaction, self- generation,
mutual exchange and information sharing an mutual
understanding explains the human communication
 They are non linear models
 Types
Verbal Model
Model whereby theory stated in words
Very useful in terms of stating hypothesis / presenting
results of a study.
eg: SMCRE Model of David Berlo

Graphic Model
Models that present schematically what verbal models
present with words.
eg: Westley and Mclean’s ABC Mass Communication
Model
 Types
Iconic Model
Models that are photographs, sculptures, paintings of persons,
objects, scenes etc.

Analog Model
Models that bear a defined structural relationship to the subject
they represent but do not look like them
Example: Computers that represents human brain

Mathematical Model
Used mainly in graph theory for the analysis of communication
networks and statistical concepts of information processing
 Classical Communication Model
(385-322 B.C.)
Formulated by Aristotle
Aristotle’s model of proof
Defined communication(Rhetoric) as the faculty of
observing in any given case the available means of
persuation.
Explained it in terms of three concepts:
ethos(speaker); pathos(listeners); logos(words)
 Ethos is the speaker and his or her character are revealed
through rhetoric
 Pathos is the audience and emotions felt by them
 Logos is the actual words used by the speaker
 Elements
Invention – (speaker discovers rationale,emotional and
ethical proofs)
Arrangement – (speaker arranges those proofs
strategically )
Style – (speaker cloths the ideas in clear and
compelling words)
Delivery – (speaker delivers the product appropriately
and if need arises, may also memorise)

Ethos Pathos
Speaker Auditor
Good Characters
Good Sense
Good well
Message

Logos
 Lasswell Model(1948)
WHO says (source); communicated WHAT (message); to
WHOM (recipient); in what WAY (channel) and what
EFFECT (result)

WHAT To WHOM
(Message) (recipient)

What WAY
(channel)

WHO says What EFFECT

(Source) (result)
Lasswell Model(1948)
Message flow in a pluralistic society with multiple
audience
Message flow through numerous channels

Communication Research area

component
Who Control analysis
Says what Content analysis
In what channel Media analysis
To whom Audience analysis
With what effect Effect analysis
 Shannon and Weaver Model(1949)
Linear model
Gained wide acceptance
Reduces communication to a process of ‘transmitting
information’
Consists of five elements:
Information source(message is produced)
Transmitter(message is encoded into signals)
Channel(signals are adapted for transmission)
Receiver(decoding/reconstructing message from signal)
Destination(message arrives)
Noise(occuring interferences)
 Shannon and Weaver Model
Information Transmitter
source Channel Receiver Destination

Message Received signal Message

Signal

Noise
 Wilbur schramm’s model

Transmitter Signal Receiver Destination

Source

Noise

Field of experience
Field of experience

Common Field of experience

 Osgood & Schramms’ Interactive Model(1954)
Based on Shannon and Weaver’s model
Altered the concept of decoding and encoding as activities
maintained simultaneously by sender and receiver
Made provisions for a two-way interchange of messages

Message
Encoder Decoder

Interpreter Interpreter

Decoder Encoder
Message
 Westley and MacLean’s Conceptual Model(1957)
According to Westley and MacLean, communication does
not begin when one person starts to talk but when a person
responds selectively to his immediate physical surrounding

Sensory experience from

environment
X-1

X-2 xi xii
A C B interactions
X-3

X-4
 Berlo’s S-M-C-R Model(1960)
Based on adaptation of shannon and weaver’s model
It explains the various elements in communication process
Includes source, message, channel , receiver and effects
Message is the central element for stressing the transmission of
ideas.
This message should have a positive or negative effect on the
audience an can be assessed through effect analysis
Notion of ‘encoding’ and ‘decoding’ was used to emphasized
problems in translating thoughts of source into words or
symbols and in deciphering these words or symbols by reciever
 Berlo’s S-M-C-R Model

encodes decodes
Source Message Channel Receiver Effects

has includes possess

possess
Contents, Hearing, Communication
Communication Positive
Elements, Seeing, skill,
skill, or
Treatment, Touching, Attitude,
Attitude, negative
Structure, Smelling, Knowledge,
Knowledge,
Code Tasting Social systems,
Social systems,
Culture,
Culture,
 Contemporary Linear Models
Foulger Model(2002)
Focuses on important role of intermediaries
Intermediaries or Gatekeepers have the ability to decide what
messages others see, what context they are seen, when they see
them, change them when need arises and also prevent them
from reaching an audience(destination)
They are also referred to as censors
Other designations for Gatekeepers include:editors, reviewers,
aggregators...

Speaker Gatekeeper Audience

 Interactive Model
Focuses on interaction and relatedness between sender and
receiver.
Concern is the effect of message on both senders and receivers
Necessary for the receiver to give feedback to sender and certain
cues about message which helps sender to maintain control over
intended effects and adjust future messages accordingly
When ‘time’ dimension was added, linear qualities became
apparent
Process in this model - listening, receiving, decoding,
interpreting & acting upon messages (acting upon message -
[feedback/response])
 Interactive Model
This is a variant of shannon’s model with the concept of
feedback added to it
 Two limitations:
 True interaction through separate behaviours exchanged is lacking
between sender and receiver
 Lose their clarity when applied to multiple message systems operating
simultaneously

Information
Transmitter Channel Receiver Destination
source
Signal Received Message
Message
signal

Noise

Feedback
 Transaction Model
Views communication as simultaneous responses
While mutually perceiving each other, both sender and
receiver makes adjustments to the messages exchanged
within transactions which create meaning in a relationship
Observes the entire communication situation rather than
isolating a sender or a receiver
Concern is with their patterns of communication behaviour
and not information and redundancy

messages
Person - 1 Person - 2
messages
 Kincaid’s Convergence Model of communication

D. Lawrence Kincaid(1979) developed a model that points

out that effective feedback creates convergence and ineffective
feedback creates divergence of communication
Participants converge and diverge on their relative position
overtime to reach mutual understanding of the issue
Goal is reaching mutual understanding
Major elements are information uncertainty, convergence,
mutual understanding, mutual agreement, collective action
,network of relationships
 Components of convergence model
Psychological Physical Psychological
Reality A Reality Reality B

Interpreting Perceiving Information Perceiving Interpreting

Action Action

Collective
Action
Understanding Believing Believing Understanding

Mutual agreement

Mutual Understanding

Social Reality
A&B
 Ecological Model
Contemporary linear model
Devised by Davis Foulger(2004)
This model explains relationship between:
Message created and consumed using language
Language occuring within media context
Message constructed and consumed within media context
Roles of consumer and creator, reflexive and introspective
Attribution of meaning being interpreted by consumers
People learning language through experience and encountering
language within media
People learning media using media
People invent and evolve languages
People invent and evolve media

Become
creators when
they reply /
provide
(Imagine,create (Observe,attribut feedback
Message
) e,interpret)
using
Creators Consumer
Language s
(Use,Invent,Evolve within (Learn, socialize Have
) within) perspectives
Media of and
relationship
s with
Dance’s Helical Spiral(1967)
Depicts communication as dynamic process
Helix represents communication evolving in an
individual from his birth to the existing moment
Hence, dependent on past informing present and
future
Flexible communication process
Continuous, unrepeatable, additive, and accumulative
Features include- may break in action, no fixed
beginning, no pure redundancy and no closure.

(f)
References
Kumar, P S G. Information and communication.
Delhi, BR publishing corporation
Dhiman,Anil.K and Rani,Yasoda. Information and
Reference Source and Service, New delhi: Ess Ess
publications,2005
THANK YOU