Fluid Mechanics

Unit-1
Lecture -01
Basics
• Fluid mechanics is the study of fluids
either in motion (fluid dynamics) or at
rest (fluid statics) and the subsequent
effects of the fluid upon the boundaries,
which may be either solid surfaces or
interfaces with other fluids.
Why Fluid Mechanics?
 Why??
Analyze any system involving fluids
– Almost all transportation systems
•Aircraft
•Automobiles
•Ships
– Fluid Machinery
•Pumps, fans, blowers, turbines,
compressors
– Air Conditioning, Refrigeration
– Sports
•Cricket ball, Golf
Basics
• When you think about it, almost everything on this
planet either is a fluid or moves within or near a
fluid.
• The essence of the subject of fluid flow is a
judicious compromise between theory and
experiment. Since fluid flow is a branch of
mechanics, it satisfies a set of well documented
basic laws, and thus a great deal of theoretical
treatment is available.
• From the point of view of fluid mechanics, all
matter consists of only two states, fluid and
solid. The difference between the two is
perfectly obvious to the layperson, and it is an
interesting exercise to ask a layperson to put
this difference into words. The technical
distinction lies with the reaction of the two to
an applied shear or tangential stress.
• A solid can resist a shear stress by a static
deformation; a fluid cannot. Any shear stress
applied to a fluid, no matter how small, will
result in motion of that fluid.
Fluid The word fluid means a substance
having particles which readily change
their relative positions.

* The time rate of deformation of the fluid

will, however, depend upon the magnitude
of the shear stress.
Distinction between a solid & a fluid

Force = F

Bottom fixed

Shear stress = G.dβ

Distinction between a solid & a fluid

dβ
Behavior of fluid under similar
condition

dβ
• The fluid moves and deforms continuously as
long as the shear stress is applied. As a
corollary, we can say that a fluid at rest must
be in a state of zero shear stress, a state often
called the hydrostatic stress condition in
structural analysis.
• Given the definition of a fluid above,
every layperson also knows that there
are two classes of fluids, liquids and
gases. Again the distinction is a
technical one concerning the effect of
cohesive forces.
• A liquid, being composed of relatively close-packed
molecules with strong cohesive forces, tends to retain
its volume and will form a free surface in a
gravitational field if unconfined from above.
• Since gas molecules are widely spaced with negligible
cohesive forces, a gas is free to expand until it
encounters confining walls. A gas has no definite
volume, and when left to itself without confinement,
a gas forms an atmosphere which is essentially
hydrostatic. The hydrostatic behavior of liquids and
gases is taken up in this unit. Gases cannot form a
free surface, and thus gas flows are rarely concerned
with gravitational effects other than buoyancy.
Distinction between liquid and gas.
• A fluid may be either a liquid or a gas.
Ser. Liquid Gas
No.
1 Liquid has specific volume. Don’t have
specific volume
2 Because of above said Don’t have free
property it posses free surface.
surface.
3 For all practical purpose Compressible in
treated as a in nature or having
compressible fluid or variable density
density is constant.
 Some Important Properties
• Density, r
• Pressure p,
• Viscosity m ,
• Surface Tension s ,
• Specific Gravity, g
• Etc.
 Density
y

Volume, 
Mass, m

C Volume,  
Mass, m

Page 13
 Topics
• Fluid Statics
• Properties of Earth’s Atmosphere
• Flow rate measuring devices
• Velocity potential
• Vorticity and circulation
• Stream Function
• Cylinder Flow
 Viscosity 1

P P’

Force, Fx
Fluid Element Velocity u
y at time, t+t
y

x
y
N O
PP' Ut
tan     
y y
 U
Rate of Strain  
 t y
U u
Stress  or in general, s 
y y
Viscosity

u
s m
y
 Property of fluid

Viscosity

In some sense measures fluidity of a fluid. Actually it is

the resistance offered by a layer of fluid to the motion of
an adjacent one. Consider the two-plate experiment. In
case of a fluid in between them, we know that the upper
plate moves with a speed U whereas the lower plate does
not move. This sets up a velocity gradient in a direction
normal to flow.
 Newtonian Fluids
du du
• For a Newtonian fluid  yx  ie.,  yx m
dy dy

u
In general m
y
m is called
•absolute or dynamic viscosity.
•Its dimensions are ML-1 T-1 Kinematic viscosity (n) is
defined as ( m/r) . Its
dimensions are M L-3

•Air and water are common examples

Page 26
 Non-Newtonian Fluids

• Shear stress not proportional to deformation rate

•Toothpaste, paint are common examples

n
 du 
  k  
 dy 

du
Page 28 Deformation rate dy
 Viscosity

It is observed that Values of viscosity m and kinematic

viscosity of a liquid viscosity n for various fluids are
decreases with
tabulated in handbooks and
temperature where
as that of a gas textbooks. For air viscosity may be
increases with calculated using the Sutherland
temperature. Find formula, T 1.5

out why. m  1.458 10 6

T  110.4
where T is in Kelvin and m is in
kg/s m.
 Surface Tension
It is the apparent interfacial stress that acts when a
liquid has a density interface
like liquid-gas, liquid-solid, liquid-liquid
Fluid surface behaves like a membrane stretched over
the fluid.
Needle supported on a fluid
Small droplets of mercury on a solid surface
Small insects on water surface
 Surface Tension

2R
2R

q Dh
2σ cosθ
Δh  Dh
λR q
q<90 0 q>90 0

Page 18
 Surface Tension

water
water
soap wax

Wetting Non-wetting
 Surface Tension
(forces on half a fluid drop)

pπ R 2

2 Rs   R p2

s
2s
p
R

2R
 Continuum Flow

For most engineering applications we consider fluid to be continuos.

But we do know that matter consists of molecules.

To be considered continuous a fluid must have a large

number of molecules in a tiny place which is small compared
to the body dimensions.

Under ordinary conditions this is true.

For eg., A cubic metre of Air at STP contains 2.5 x 10 25 number

of molecules. Its mean free path is like 6.6 x 10-8 m.
 Rarefied Flows

At great heights from the sea level it is not

possible to consider air to be continuous.
The molecular mean free path may be of the
same order of magnitude as the body dimensions.
Eg., at an altitude of 130 km the mean free path
of air is 10.2m.

Then it becomes important to consider individual

or groups of molecules. This leads to the
discipline of Rarefied gasdynamics.
 Bulk Modulus of Elasticity

Compressibility of a fluid may be expressed in terms

of Bulk Modulus of Elasticity.
dp
k
dv
v
For air k is equal to g (adiabatic conditions) and p (isothermal)
For water, k =2.2 Gpa, meaning that when a pressure of 0.1Mpa
acts upon a cubic metre of water, the change in volume resulting
is 1/22000 m 3.
Fluid Statics
 Fluid Statics
• Only normal stresses acting
• Application
– Forces on submerged objects
– Pressure measuring devices
– Deduce properties of atmosphere and
oceans
– Calculate forces in hydraulic systems
(like brakes, industrial presses)
 Basic Equation
• To calculate pressure field in a static
fluid
• Apply Newton’s second law
Differential element in a
static fluid

dz

dx
dy
Page 50
Mass of the Element

dm  r d
Where
dm  dx  dy  dz
 Second Law
• Boils down to a force balance
p p p
 0,  0,  r g
x y z
dp
  r g  g
dz
Where g is specific weight
 Absolute and Gage pressures

Pressure measured with the help of gauge

Pressure Level, 1.213 kPa

Gage Pressure , say 20 kPa

Standard Atmospheric
pressure (1.01 bar)
Absolute Pressure

Atmospheric Pressure
1.013 bar

Vacuum
 Absolute and Gage pressures

•Any pressure less than atmospheric is termed as

Vacuum
•Negative gauge pressure is known as Vacuum

Gage Pressure , say 10 kPa

Pressure Level, 91.3 kPa

Absolute Pressure Atmospheric Pressure

101.3 kPa

Vacuum
 Blade Manufacturing
In blade Manufacturing all pressure are Negative
gauge or Vacuum pressure
1. After lay completion of lay first vacuum is
achieved is: -1000 mbar

1. Vacuum pressure or Negative gauge pressure

before the starting the infusion: -950 mbar

3. Vacuum pressure or Negative gauge pressure

after Infusion: -500 mbar
 Manometer, Barometer
• For constant density, we have
p  p0  r g  z0  z )
• Helps one to measure pressures.
• Manometer formula, Show
 Standard Atmosphere
• US standard atmosphere
• To develop an equation for pressure as a
function of elevation
• Atmosphere divided into
– Troposphere up to 11 km , temperature decreases
linearly with height
– Stratosphere beyond 11 km , temperature is almost
constant
 Stratosphere

Tropopause
-56.5 0C 11 Km

Troposphere
T = T0 –mz
m= 0.0065 K/m

150 C
 Variation of Temperature with
Height
-56.5 0 C
16
stratosphere
12
11 Km
troposphere

8
M=6.5 K/Km
Altitude

4
Kms

0
-100 -80 -60 -40 -20 0 20 40 60
Temperature 0 C
 Troposphere
dp
 r g
dz
p  rRT
T  T0  mz, m is called " lapseRate" , K/m 0

g / mR g / mR
 mz  T 
p  p0 1    p0  
 T0   T0 
 Stratosphere
dp
 r g
dz
p  rRT
p2  g  z1  z 2 )  r 2
 exp   
p1  RTs  r1
 Troposphere (2)
• Lapse Rate m= 0.0065 K/m