Protective Relays

Dr. P.N.Padghan
 Purpose of Protective Relays

• Transmission line fault protection

• Detect and isolate equipment failures
• Improve system stability
• Protect against overloading
• Protect against abnormal conditions
Voltage, frequency, current

• Fault Causes
• Lightning, Wind and ice, Vandalism, Contamination, External
forces Cars, tractors, balloons, airplanes, trees, critters, flying
saucers, etc. Equipment failures System disturbances
 Functions
• Relays are switches that open and close circuits
electromechanically or electronically. Relays control one electrical
circuit by opening and closing contacts in another circuit. As relay
diagrams show, when a relay contact is normally open (NO), there
is an open contact when the relay is not energized.

• The function of protective relaying is to cause the prompt removal

from service of an element of a power system when it suffers a
short circuit or when it starts to operate in any abnormal manner
that might cause damage or otherwise interfere with the effective
operation of the rest of the system.
 Requirements
• The relaying equipment is aided in the task by circuit breakers
that are capable of disconnecting the faulty element .The
general requirement of protective relaying is to cause the
prompt removal from service of any element of a power system
when it suffers a short circuit, or when it starts to operate in any
abnormal condition.

• Some of the basic Requirements of the protection system is to

provide: Reliability, Selectivity, Sensitivity and Speed of
operation. Protection system is an extremely important part of
the power system as it is provided to operate under abnormal
conditions to prevent failure or isolate faults and limits the
effects of the faults.
 Terms related to Protective Relaying

• accuracy, • accuracy class, • reliability, • security, • dependability, •

sensitivity, • relay stability, • primary protection, • backup
protection, • dual protection, and • device number.
 Relay Types
• Non-directional
• Detect fault in any direction
• Operate when quantity exceeds pickup value
• Used on distribution lines
• Can be used on radial systems
• Directional
• Only trip for faults in front of relay (on line)
• Use voltages, currents, angles to determine fault direction Operate when
quantities exceed pickup value and correct direction is determined
• Relay of choice for HV and EHV transmission
• Current, voltage, frequency
• Operates if input meets setting
• Distance: Uses voltage and current to measure impedance to fault
Differential: Looks at imbalance between inputs
• Common for power transformers and generators
• Can be used for transmission lines
 Relay Types
• Recloser: Relay to automatically reclose circuit breaker following a
relay operation to restore circuit
• Pilot scheme: Uses communications to transmit relay information
or trip to remote terminal
• Provides high speed tripping for entire protection zone
• Radio, fiber optics, hard wire, carrier current can be used for pilot
channel
• Most common on HV, EHV lines
• Phase relay: Relay measures phase current or voltage quantities
Ground relay: Relay measures ground current or voltage quantity
(zero sequence values)
• Protects for one line to ground and phase to phase to ground faults
Sequence relay
• Relay measures symmetrical component sequence quantity (+, -,
0)
Basic Relay Circuit
 Primary & Backup Protection
• The main protection or primary protection is the first line
protection which provides quick-acting and selective clearing
of a fault within the boundary of the circuit section or element
it protects. The main protection is provided in each section of
an electrical installation.
• The backup protection provides the back up to the main
protection whenever it fails in operation or its cut out for
repairs. The backup protection is essential for the proper
working of the electrical system. The backup protection is the
second line of defence which isolates the faulty section of the
system in case the main protection fail to function properly.
The failure of the primary protection occurs because of the
failure of the DC supply circuit, current or voltage supply to
relay circuit, relay protective circuit or because of the CB.
 Primary & Backup Protection

• The use of the backup protection depends on the economics and

technical consideration. The backup protection usually for the
economic reason not so fast as the main protection.
 Terms
• Pick Up Current of Relay: It is the minimum current in the relay
coil at which the relay starts to operate. If the current in the relay is
less than this value relay will not operate, as and when it is equal
or more than this value then relay current operates to energise the
trip coil which opens the CB.
• Current Setting: It is often desirable to adjust the pick-up current
to any required value. This is known as current setting and is
usually achieved by the use of tapping's on the relay operating
coil.
• Pick Up Current = Rated secondary current of C.T. X Current
setting
 Example
• Suppose that an over current relay having current setting of 125% is
connected to a supply ckt through a CT of 400/5. The rated
secondary current of CT is 5A. Therefore, the pick-up value will be
25% more than 5A i.e. 5 X 1.25 = 6.25 A. It means that with above
current setting, the relay will actually operate for a relay coil current
equal to or greater than 6.25 A.
• The desired current setting is obtained by inserting a plug between
the jaws of a bridge type socket at the tap value required.
• Plug Setting Multiplier (P.S.M.): It is the ratio of fault current in
relay coil to the pick-up current.
• P.S.M. = Fault current in relay coil / Pick-up current
= Fault current in relay coil / Rated secondary current of
CT X current setting
 Time Setting Multiplier (TSM)

• Different operating times are possible for the same relay.

• By adjusting the angular distance by which the moving part of the
relay travels for closing the relay contacts.
• Can be set up to 10 steps from 0.1,0.2, -------------------0.9,1

• For Ex.: For TSM = 1; if operating time = 4 sec, then

with TSM = 0.5 it will be 4 X 0.5 = 2 sec or
with TSM = 0.2 it will be 4 X 0.2 = 0.8 sec

All those operating times are for the same value of current.
• Time Setting Multiplier (TSM)
 Calculation of Relay Operating Time
• Requirement:-
• Time / PSM curve
• Current setting
• Time setting
• Fault current
• CT Ratio
• Procedure:-
• Convert the fault current into the relay coil current by using the CT
ratio.
• Express the relay current as a multiple of current setting (Calculate
PSM).
• From the Time/PSM curve of the relay, read off the time of operation
for the calculated PSM.
• Find the actual time of operation by multiplying the time of operation
by TSM in use.
 Example-1
• Suppose that a relay is connected to a 400/5 CT and set at 150%.
With a primary fault current of 2400 A, the PSM can be calculated
as:
• Pick-up Value = Rated secondary current of CT X Current setting
= 5 X 1.5 = 7.5 A
Fault current in Relay coil = 2400 X 5/400 = 30 A

PSM = 30/7.5 = 4
 Example-2

• Determine the time of operation of a 5 A, 3 sec overcurrent relay

having a current setting of 125% and a TSM of 0.6 connected to
supply ckt through a 400/5 CT when the ckt carries a fault current
of 4000 A. (From Time / PSM curve for the PSM of 8 the time of
operation is 3.5 sec.)
• Sol.:- Rated secondary current of CT = 5 A
Pickup current = 5 X 1.25 = 6.25 A
Fault current in relay coil = 4000 X 5/400 = 50 A
PSM = 50/6.25 = 8
Actual relay operating time = 3.5 X TSM
= 3.5 X 0.6 = 2.1 sec
Example-3
 Example-4
Example 2: Determine the time of operation of a relay of rating 5A,
2.2 sec IDMTL and having a relay setting of 125%, TMS=0.6. It is
connected to a supply circuit through a C.T 400/5 ratio. The fault
current is 4000A.
Solution: The operating current of the relay: 5×1.25=6.25A
Ip=IF=4000 A

From the curve, the operating time for PSM=8 is 3.2 sec (TSM=1)
(This means that the current in secondary CT in case of fault and if we set the PSM to 8
then the relay will operate at 6.25 A and 3.2 second)
If we select TSM=0.6 then the operation time is
[0.6 (TSM)/1.0 (TSM)] X 3.2 = 1.92 sec
 Time current characteristic of Over current relay
• The time-current characteristic curve is different for inverse
time, definite time, and instantaneous relays. Commonly use
inverse-time, definite-time, and instantaneous elements, all on the
same relay. Inverse time overcurrent relays: Slow to trip at low
currents. Faster to trip at high fault currents.
Time current characteristic of Over current relay
 Thermal Relay
• Thermal overload relays are economic electromechanical
protection devices for the main circuit. They offer reliable
protection for motors in the event of overload or phase failure.
• The coefficient of expansion is one of the basic properties of any
material. Two different metals always have different degree of
linear expansion. A bimetallic strip always bends when it heated
up, due to this inequality of linear expansion of two different
metals.
• Thermal motor protection relays contain three bimetal strips
together with a trip mechanism in a housing made of insulating
material. The bimetal strips are heated by the motor current,
causing them to bend and activating the trip mechanism after a
certain travel which depends on the current-setting of the relay.
 Construction of Thermal Relay
• The construction of thermal relay is quite simple. Bimetallic strip
has two metals – metal A and metal B. Metal A has lower
coefficient of expansion and metal B has higher coefficient of
expansion.
• When over current flows through the heating coil, it heats up the
bimetallic strip. Due to the heat generated by the coil, both of the
metals are expanded. But expansion of metal B is more than
expansion of metal A. Due to this dissimilar expansion the
bimetallic strip will bend towards metal A.
• The strip bends, the NO contact is closed which ultimately
energizes the trip coil of a circuit breaker. The heating effect is not
instantaneous. As per Joule’s law of heating, the amount of heat
generated is H  I 2
Rt .
• R is the electrical resistance of the heating coil, t is the time for
which the current I flows through the heating coil.
 Application
• It is clear that, heat generator by the coil is directly proportional to
the time during which the over current flows through the coil.
Hence there is a prolonged time delay in the operation of thermal
relay. That is why this type of relay is generally used where over
load is allowed to flow for a predetermined amount of time before
it trips. If overload or over current falls down to normal value
before this predetermined time, the relay will not be operated to
trip the protected equipment.
Construction of Thermal Relay
 Introduction to Static Relays
• The relay which does not contain any moving parts is known as
the static relay. In such type of relays, the output is obtained by the
static components like magnetic and electronic circuit etc. The
relay which consists static and electromagnetic relay is also called
static relay because the static units obtain the response and the
electromagnetic relay is only used for switching operation.
• The input of the current transformer is connected to the
transmission line, and their output is given to the rectifier. The
rectifier was rectifying the input signal and pass it to the relaying
measuring unit.
• Main Components
 Static Relay

• Static relays are mainly made with semiconductor switches like

thyristor.
• The rectifying measuring unit has the comparators, level detector
and the logic circuit. The output signal from relaying unit obtains
only when the signal reaches the threshold value. The output of the
relaying measuring unit acts as an input to the amplifier.
• The amplifier amplifies the signal and gives the output to the
output devices. The output device activates the trip coil only when
the relay operates. The output device is activated and gives the
tripping command to the trip circuit.
• The static relay only gives the response to the electrical signal. The
other physical quantities like heat temperature etc. is first converted
into the analogue and digital electrical signal and then act as an
input for the relay.
 Advantages of Static Relays

• The static relay consumes very less power because of which the
burden on the measuring instruments decreases and their accuracy
increases.
• The static relay gives the quick response, long life, high reliability
and accuracy and it is shockproof.
• The reset time of the relay is very less.
• It does not have any thermal storage problems.
• The relay amplifies the input signal which increases their
sensitivity.
• The chance of unwanted tripping is less in this relay.
• The static relay can easily operate in earthquake-prone areas
because they have high resistance to shock.
 Limitations of Static Relays
• The components used by the static relay are very sensitive to the
electrostatic discharges. The electrostatic discharges mean sudden
flows of electrons between the charged objects. Special maintenance
is provided to the components so that it does not affect by the
electrostatic discharges.
• The relay is easily affected by the high voltage surges. Thus,
precaution should be taken for avoiding the damages through
voltage spikes.
• The working of the relay depends on the electrical components.
• The relay has less overloading capacity.
• The static relay is more costly as compared to the electromagnetic
relay.
• The construction of the relay is easily affected by the surrounding
interference.
For integrated protection and monitoring systems programmable
microprocessor controlled static relays are preferred.
 Types based on Characteristics
• A relay that operates or picks up when it's current exceeds a
predetermined value (setting value) is called Overcurrent
Relay. Overcurrent protection protects electrical power systems
against excessive currents which are caused by short circuits,
ground faults, etc.

• Instantaneous overcurrent relays.

• Definite time overcurrent relays
• Inverse-time overcurrent relays with definite minimum time
(IDMT)
• Directional overcurrent relays
 Static Overcurrent Relay
• A. Static Instantaneous Overcurrent relay

• The current derived from the CT is fed to the

input transformer which gives a proportional output voltage. The
input transformer has an air gap in the iron core to give linearity in
the current / voltage relationship up to the highest value of current
expected and is provided with tapping on its secondary winding to
obtain different current settings. The output voltage of the
transformer is rectified through a rectifier and then filtered at a
single stage to avoid undesirable time delay in filtering, so as to
ensure high speed of operation.
 Static Instantaneous Overcurrent relay
• A limit made of a zener diode is also incorporated in the circuit to
limit the rectified voltage to safe values even when the input
current is very high under fault conditions. A fixed portion of the
rectified and filtered voltage (through a potential divider) is
compared against a pre-set pick-up value by a level detector and if
it exceeds the pick-up value, a signal through an amplifier is given
to the output which issues the trip signal. The output device may
either be a static thyristor circuit or an electromagnetic slave
relay.
 Definite Time Overcurrent Relays

• The operating time of overcurrent relays are constant

irrespective of the level of the fault current. In this case, an
intentional time delay is introduced through a timing circuit.
• The input current signal derived from the main CT is converted to
a proportional voltage signal by the input transformer and then
rectified, filtered and compared with the preset threshold value of
the level detector (1).
• If the voltage exceeds the preset threshold value, the level detector
gives an output voltage, thereby the charging of the capacitor C of
the RC timing circuit starts.
 Definite Time Overcurrent Relays
As soon as the voltage across the capacitor exceeds the pre-set threshold
value (VT) of level detector (2), a signal through the amplifier is given
and time setting, respectively.
• If VT is the threshold value of the level detector, the time TC required
to reach this voltage depends upon the charging time of the capacitor
C of the RC timing circuit, given by,
•
• TC = RCloge [V / (V-VT)]

• Where V is the voltage applied to the capacitor. If V, R and C are

constant, the charging time for a given value of VT will be constant.
The time TC can be varied by varying R-C combinations and VT. In
this case, since the capacitor charging is done from a fixed d.c.
output, voltage of level detector (1), the operating time of the relay for
particular values of R and C of the timing circuit and VT of the level
detector (2) will be constant for different values of the fault current.
 Inverse-Time Overcurrent Relay
• The operating time of the inverse-time overcurrent relays decreases
with increasing fault current. For this relay with inverse-time
characteristic, the charging of the capacitor of the timing circuit
takes place from a voltage proportional to current.

• The current signal is converted to a proportional voltage signal by

the input transformer and then rectified, filtered and compared with a
reference voltage of the level detector (1) set by the
potentiometer P1.
 Inverse-Time Overcurrent Relay
• Under normal conditions i.e., when the input current is low switch
S1 is ON, short circuiting the capacitor C of the RC timing
circuit and switch S2 is OFF. As soon as the input voltage exceeds
the preset reference voltage of the level detector (1), switch S1 is
switched OFF and switch S2 is switched ON and the charging of
capacitor C of the timing circuits starts from a voltage proportional to
the current.
• Switches S1 and S2 are made of static components. When the voltage
across the capacitor C of the timing circuit exceeds the reference
voltage of the level detector (2) as set by potentiometer P3, a signal is
given to the output device through an amplifier. Finally, the output
device issues the trip signal. Here the plug setting multiplier is given
by the transformer secondary tap and potentiometer P1 and the time
multiplier setting is determined by potentiometers P2 and P3.
 Directional Overcurrent Relays
• The directional overcurrent relays incorporates a directional unit
which responds to power flow in a specified direction.
The directional relay senses the direction of power flow by means
of a phase difference (Φ) between voltage (V) and current (I).
When Φ exceeds a certain relay operates. The directional relay is a
double actuating quantity relay with one input as current I from
CT and the other input as voltage V from PT.
• In case of electromagnetic directional overcurrent relays,
discrimination is affected when voltage drops down to very low
values under fault conditions. In static directional relays this
problem is less serious because the static comparators used in
these relays are inherently very sensitive and they can give reliable
performance up to 1% of system voltage which is well within the
minimum fault voltage.
 Directional Overcurrent Relays

• The inputs V and I are applied to phase comparator. A phase

shifter is added in voltage input circuit before applying it to the
phase comparator to achieve the maximum output of the phase
comparator under fault conditions. The output of the phase
comparator is given to the level detector and then to the output
device through an amplifier. if the output of the phase comparator
exceeds the pre-set reference voltage of the level detector, the
output device issues the trip signal.
• Types of phase comparator: Hall effect type comparator &
Rectifier bridge type of comparator
 Static Distance Relay
• Distance relays are characterised by having two input quantities
proportional to the voltage and current at a particular point in the power
system, referred to as the relaying point.
• Ideal static distance relays have characteristics independent of actual
magnitudes of voltage and current but dependent only on their ratio and
phase angle between them.
• Distance relays includes impedance relays, reactance relays and mho
relays.
• The static relay circuitry is designed to recognize the changes & to
distinguish between healthy & faulty conditions.
• Either magnitudes of V/I or Phase angle between V & I are measured
by static relay circuitry and a trip signal is sent to CB.
• The part of the circuitry which compares the two actuating quantities
either in magnitude or phase is known as thy comparator.
• Two types: Amplitude & Phase Comparator
Static Distance Relay
Static Distance Relay
 Static Distance Relay
• Directional Relay: Phase Comparison
• Directional relay is basically a phase comparator which compares the
phase relation between V and I and the relay will operate for the
condition -90° ≤ θ ≤ 90°. The inputs in case of static directional relay are
V and I ZR and the characteristic is –
• Z ZR cos (ɸ – θ) ≥ 0
• Where, Z is the fault impedance and is equal to ratio of V and I, ZR is the
replica impedance in the relay, ɸ is the phase angle between V and I and
θ is the relay characteristic angle.
• Amplitude Comparison:
• The inputs for amplitude comparison will be –
• V + I ZR and V – I ZR
• For operation of relay –
• |V + I ZR| > |V – I ZR|
• or |Z + ZR| > |Z – ZR|
• and for no operation |Z + ZR| < |Z – ZR|
 Static Distance Relay
• Impedance Relay:
• Amplitude Comparison
• Impedance relay is inherently an amplitude comparator and the
inputs are I ZR and V.
• For operation of relay –
• |I ZR| >|V|
• or |Z| < | ZR|
• or R + jX < ZR

• Phase Comparison:
• The inputs are (V + I ZR) and (V – I ZR).
 Microprocessor Based Relay

• Electromechanical relays had several drawbacks: high burden on

instrument transformers, high operating time, contact problèmes,
fréquent maintenance etc.
• Solid state relays which avoid most of these disadvantages are
gradually replacing electromagnetic relays.
• Static relays have also been increasingly used in recent years
because of their inherent advantages of compactness, lower burden,
less maintenance, sensitivity and high speed.
• But till suffer from a number of disadvantages such as inflexibility,
duplication of specification efforts, inadaptibi1ity to changing
system conditions, complexity and cost.
• Software schemes avoid most of these disadvantages.
Programmable equipment can respond fast and can be used to
implement complex threshold characteristics at low cost.
 Microprocessor Based Relay
• Microprocessor have afford us in protective relaying:
– Remarkable capability of sampling voltages & currents at very high speed
– Manipulating the data to accomplish a distance or overcurrent measurement
– Retaining fault information
– Performing self-checking functions

• With the development of economical, powerful & sophisticated μp,

there is growing interest in developing μp based relays.
– More flexible because of being programmable & superior to conventional
electromechanical & static relays

• Main features which have encouraged are

– Economy, Compactness, Reliability, Flexibility, Adaptive Capability, Self-
checking ability & Improved performance over conventional relays.
 Microprocessor Based Relay

• Elements & Circuits for Interfacing:

– Operational Amplifier: Direct coupled high gain amp, used to perform a
wide variety of linear & non-linear functions (available in IC form)
– Zero Crossing Detector
– Phase Shifter
– Current to Voltage Converter
– Summing Amplifier
– Differential Amplifier
– Precision Rectifier
– Analog to Digital Converter
– Analog Multiplexer
Microprocessor Based Over Current Relay
Microprocessor Based Over Current Relay
 Assignment No. 3 (Protective Relaying) Dr. P. N. Padghan
• Q1. Discuss briefly the role of protective relays in a modern power system.
• Q2. Discuss various zones of protection in a modern power system.
• Q3. Explain what you understand by primary and back-up protection. State the role of back-up
• protection and the various methods of providing back-up protection.
• Q4. Explain what you understand by pick-up and reset value of the actuating quantity.
• Q5. Discuss the desirable qualities of a protective relay.
• Q6. State the terms:
• Relay time, Fault clearing time, Relay setting, PSM and TSM
• Q7. Explain the basic relay circuit.
• Q8. What do you understand by incorrect operation of the relay? State the reasons of incorrect
• operation?
• Q9. State the classification of relays based on i) Technology ii) Speed of operation & iii) Function
• Q10. Explain Thermal relay. State their merits and limitations.
• Q11. Explain Numerical relay. State their merits and limitations.
• Q12. Explain Static over current relay. State their merits and limitations.
• Q13. Explain Static Distance relay. State their merits and limitations.
• Q.14 Draw and explain the Time/Current characteristic of Over current relay.
• Q15. State the comparison between electromechanical relay and Static relay.
• Q16. State the features of Microprocessor based relays.
• Q.17 With the help of block diagram explain the working of microprocessor based over current relay.
• Q18. With the help of block diagram explain the working of microprocessor based distance relay.
• Q19. With the help of block diagram explain the working of microprocessor based differential relay.
• Q20. With the help of block diagram explain the working of microprocessor based directional relay.
• Q21. With the help of block diagram explain the working of microprocessor based impedance relay.