Mathematical Background

Chapter 2
 Scientific Notation
• Expresses numbers as a number multiplied
by the power of 10.

63,000 6.3 x 104

0.0000958 9.58 x 10-5
 Units
• SI units comes from the French Systeme
International d’Unites

– Fundamentals units: identify a physical quantity

– Derived units: combinations of the 7

fundamental units
 Important SI Units in Chemistry

Fundamental Units
Name Symbol SI Unit Abbrev
length l meter m
mass m kilogram kg
time t second s
temp T kelvin K
amount of substance n mole mol
electric current I ampere A
luminous intensity Iv candela cd
 Important SI Units in Chemistry
Name Symbol SI Unit Abbrev
length l meter m
mass m kilogram kg
time t second s
temp T kelvin K
Examples of Derived Units
volume V cubic meter m3
kg  m
force F Newton N
s2
kg  m2
energy E Joule J  N  m 
s2
N kg
pressure P Pascal Pa  2 
m m  s2
 From Table 2-3: Metric Prefixes
Metric Prefixes
Definition Symbol Equivalence
giga = 109 G 1 Ghz = 109 hz
mega = 106 M 1 MW = 106 W
kilo = 103 k 1 km = 103 m
deci = 10-1 d 1 dL = 10-1 L
centi = 10-2 c 1 cg = 10-2 g
milli = 10-3 m 1 mm = 10-3 m
micro = 10-6 μ (mu) 1 μL = 10-6 L
nano = 10-9 n 1 ns = 10-9 s
pico = 10-12 p 1 pg = 10-12 g

You will need memorize the prefixes in color for quizzes and exams!
 Three possible conversion
(or correction) needs:
• Units are different sized (normal case)
g kg lbs
Conversion factor (ratio)
tsp gal L
• Units have different zero points
oC K Correction factor (+/–)
• Units are different sized AND have different zero
points
oC oF Correction AND conversion
 Temperature
• Kelvin vs. Celsius
°𝐾 = ℃ + 273.15

• Celsius vs. Fahrenheit

5
℃ = (℉ − 32)
9
 Density as a Conversion Factor
Density of liquid mercury = 13.5 g/mL...so 13.5 g Hg() = 1 mL Hg()

13.5 g 1 mL are both valid conversion

so, for Hg ( ) : and factors.
1 mL 13.5 g

What is the volume of 24.4 g of liquid mercury?

1 mL Hg
24.4 g Hg   1.81 mL Hg
13.5 g Hg
 Equivalencies and Constants
(*) signifies an exact conversion
• Mass
Pressure
• 1 lb = 454 g
1 atm = 1.01325  105 Pa* (definition)
• 16 oz = 1 lb* (definition)
1 atm = 760 torr* (definition)
• 2.2 lb = 1 kg
• Volume
• 1 L = 1.057 qt
• 4 quarts = 1 gal* (definition) Natural Constants
• 1000 mL = 1 L* (definition) π = 3.1416 (3.14159265...)
• Energy 1 mole = 6.022 x 1023 (6.022142…)
• 1 cal = 4.184 J c = 3.00 x 108 m/s (2.99792458...)
• 1 eV = 1.602  10‐19 J V ideal gas at STP = 22.4 L
• Temperature h = 6.626 x 10‐34 Js (6.6260755...)
• 0 oC = 273.15 K = 32 oF* RRydberg = 1.097 x 107 m‐1
• 1 C deg = 1 K deg = 1.8 F deg* Rgas = 8.3145 J /mol K
• Length = 0.082058 L atm /mol K
• 2.54 cm = 1 in* (definition)
• 12 in = 1 ft* (definition) Note the lack of * here!
• 1 ft = 0.3048 m* (result of exact conversion!)
 Accuracy and Precision
• How close to the truth is the measurement?
• How well do multiple measurements agree
with each other?
• How many significant digits did you measure?
 Accuracy and Precision
• Precision: measure of consistency of data
– Reproducibility
– Average deviation: measure of consistency

• Accuracy: measure of how close a value is to the

“true” value
– Percent error: assessment of accuracy
 Errors
• Systematic error
– Related to accuracy
– Error is repeated and affects all measurements
• Random error
– Related to precision
– Unavoidable and natural
• Blunder
– Spills
 Significant Figures
• Occur via the process of making measurements.
• The measuring tool results in a particular
precision of the numerical data.
• This precision should be maintained during
subsequent mathematical manipulations of the
data.
• Rules for zeros (they are significant if they add
precision).
• Rules for adding/subtracting (decimal places)
and multiplying/dividing (#significant digits).
 Mnemonic for Sig. Figs: USA Map

P A

• If decimal point is present, you count from left to right

– Start in the Pacific Ocean and cross US
• If decimal point is absent, you count from right to left
– Start in the Atlantic Ocean and cross US
• Start counting sig. fig. when you find the first non-zero digit.
• Zeros in the middle of non-zero digits are always significant.
 Exact Numbers
• Numbers that don’t have uncertainty
associated with them (ex. Unit definitions
and counting individual items (44 students
in this class)). They don’t limit the number
of sig. figs.
 Equivalencies and Constants
(*) signifies an exact conversion
• Mass
Pressure
• 1 lb = 454 g
1 atm = 1.01325  105 Pa* (definition)
• 16 oz = 1 lb* (definition)
1 atm = 760 torr* (definition)
• 2.2 lb = 1 kg
• Volume
• 1 L = 1.057 qt
• 4 quarts = 1 gal* (definition) Natural Constants
• 1000 mL = 1 L* (definition) π = 3.1416 (3.14159265...)
• Energy 1 mole = 6.022 x 1023 (6.022142…)
• 1 cal = 4.184 J c = 3.00 x 108 m/s (2.99792458...)
• 1 eV = 1.602  10‐19 J V ideal gas at STP = 22.4 L
• Temperature h = 6.626 x 10‐34 Js (6.6260755...)
• 0 oC = 273.15 K = 32 oF* RRydberg = 1.097 x 107 m‐1
• 1 C deg = 1 K deg = 1.8 F deg* Rgas = 8.3145 J /mol K
• Length = 0.082058 L atm /mol K
• 2.54 cm = 1 in* (definition)
• 12 in = 1 ft* (definition) Note the lack of * here!
• 1 ft = 0.3048 m* (result of exact conversion!)
 Calculations with Sig. Figs
• Multiplication and Division
– The answer has the same number of significant figures
as the term having the fewest sig. figs.
– 11.2 x 5.8 x 0.4259 = 28 (2 sig figs)

• Addition and Subtraction

– The answer has the same number of decimal places as
there are in the measurement with the fewest decimal
places.
– 11.294 + 5.28 = 16.57 (4 sig figs)
 1 km
1.50 mi   2.414016 km  2.41 km
0.621371192237 mi

1 km
1.50 mi   2.41390408754  2.41 km
0.6214 mi

1 km
1.50 mi   2.4154589372 km  2.42 km
0.621 mi
1 km
1.50 mi   2.41935483871 km  2.42 km
0.62 mi
but , can only be reported as 2.4 km
 Rounding Off Rules
1. If the digit removed is more than 5, the preceding number increases
by 1. (ex. 7.679 → 7.68)
2. If the digit removed is less than 5, the preceding number remains the
same (ex. 0.933 → 0.93)
3. If the digit removed is 5, the preceding number is increased by 1 if it
is odd (ex. 57.75 → 57.8) and remains unchanged if even (57.65 →
57.6). If the 5 is followed only by zeros, zero is treated as being even
(17.6500 → 17.6). If the 5 is followed by non-zeros, rules #1 is
followed (17.6513 → 17.7).
4. Always carry one or two additional significant figures through a
multistep calculation and round off the final answer only.