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THYRISTORS
A Thyristors is one of the most important types of
power semiconductor devices.They are used
extensively in power electronics circuits. The word
thyristor’ is originated from Greek word. The word “thy”
means switch. The total word thyristor indicates that the
switch belongs to a transistor family. The
Development of thyristor has revolutionized the use of
semiconductors for power control. The thyristor was first
invented by Bell Laboratory in U.S.A. in the year 1948
and it (100V,10A) was first introduced in the market by
General Electric Company in the year 1957. However,
commercially it started becoming available after 1960.
Since this time there has been a rapid growth in the
control equipment making use of thyristors.
Initially however for a period of 5-6 years the failure
rate of the equipments hampered the growth of
thyristorised equipment in industry. This however did
not cause any break in the building up of know-how and
technical literature has been piling up since, at a rate of
about 200 reported articles per year on various aspects
of this technology.It will not be wrong to say that the
present state of thyristor technology has been a result
of about ten years efforts in all directions including
development in semiconductor and printed circuits
technology. Today single thyristor is Capable of
handling maximum of 25MW [5000V, 5000A].
TERMINAL CHARACTERISTICS OF THYRISTORS
The thyristor has four layers PNPN semiconductor
switching device. It has three terminals: Anode,
Cathode and gate
When the anode voltage is made positive with respect
to the cathode. The junction ‘J1’ and ‘J3’ are forward
biased while junction ‘J2’is reverse biased. A very
small leakage current will flow through the device. The
thyristor is then said to be in the forward blocking
state or off state condition. If the voltage at anode is
continuously increased, the breakdown of reverse
bias junction ‘J2’ occurs due to high voltage gradient
and the device is switched on. The voltage drop would
be due to ohmic drop in the four layers and it is small,
typically 1v. In the on-state, the anode current is
limited by an external impedance or a resistance,
,As shown in fig.1(a). The anode current must be more
than ‘Latching Current’for on-state condition.If the anode
current does not fall below the ‘Holding Current’the
thyristor remains on.The latching current is usually double
the holding current but both are low, even much less
than 1 of the full load rated value. ‘Latching Current’is
the minimum anode current required to maintain the
thyristor in the on-state immediately after a thyristor has
been turned on and gate signal has been removed
source current Is is
positive when Tl, T2
are conducting. The
variation of voltage
across thyristors Tl,
T2, T3 or T4 reveals
that circuit turn- off
time for both
converter and
inverter operations is
given by Tc = - /
sec
when Tl, T2 are
conducting. The
variation of
voltage across
thyristors Tl, T2,
T3 or T4 reveals
that circuit turn-
off time for both
converter and
inverter
operations is
given by Tc = -
/ sec
As both the types of phase-controlled converters have been
studied, the advantages of single- phase bridge converter
over single-phases mid - point converter can now be
stated:(i) SCRs are subjected to a peak inverse voltage
of 2 Vm in mid- point converter and
Vm in full converter. Thus for the same voltage and current
ratings of SCRs,
power handled by mid-point configuration is about half of
that handled by bridge
configuration,
(ii) In mid- point converter, each secondary should be
able to supply
the load power as such the transformer rating in mid -point
converter is double the load rating. This , however, is not
the case in single-phase bridge converter. It may thus be
inferred from above that bridge configuration is preferred
over mid-point configuration. However, the choice
between these two types depends primarily on cost of the
various components, available source voltage and the
load voltage required. Mid-point configuration is used in
case the terminals on dc side have to be grounded.
Phase and Amplitude Relations in a Three-phase
System
Single-phase rectifiers are used in applications requiring
small amounts of dc power, such as radios, audio
amplifiers, and television receivers.
The dc power requirements of industry are usually much
greater than that by a single-phase rectifier system. To
meet this demand for large quantities of dc power
polyphase rectifier systems.
Poly-phase rectifiers produce less ripple voltage per
equivalent filter section than do single-phase rectifiers.
Moreover, even if the load does not require a filtered dc
output, poly-phase rectifiers are more efficient in that the
dc output is smoother and hence contains less wasted ac
power. Since polyphase rectifiers are normally required to
supply large amounts of power heavy-duty, solid-state
rectifiers are used
Let us briefly review the phase relationships in a three-
phase system. In Fig.1(a), a four-wire system is used as a
source of three-phase power. If an oscilloscope were
connected from line I to common, the resulting sine wave
would appear as A in Fig. 1(b). This is our reference
waveform. Waveform B from line 2 to common is delayed
by 120°. That is, there is a 120° phase lag between
waveforms A and B. Similarly, waveform C from line 3 to
common starts 120° after the start of waveform B. Figure
1(b) is a composite of the three waveforms, all plotted on
a common time axis to show the phase relationships
among them. These waveforms further show that the
peak amplitude and the frequency of each of the voltages
are the same.
It is interesting to note that single-phase power
may be taken from any two of the lines in
Fig.1(a). It should be noted, however, that the
voltage between any two hot lines, say 1 and 2, is
greater than the voltage between any one line
and common.
Thus, in a balanced system, the voltage between
any two lines, not including common, is equal to
the voltage from any one line to common x3. For
example, if voltages A, B, C in Fig. 1(b) are each
equal to 120 volts, the voltage from line 1 to line 2
is 120 x3 = 208. Similarly, the voltage B' from
line 2 to line 3 is 208 volts, and C from line 3 to
line 1 is 208 volts. Moreover, there is a 120°
phase difference between the voltages A', B', and
C".
Three-phase Half-wave Rectifier without a Transformer
Figure-2 is the circuit diagram of a transformerless three-
phase half-wave rectifier supplying a resistive load RL. When
switches S1, S2, and S3 are closed, lines 1,2, and 3 supply
the anode voltages of rectifiers Dl,D2, and D3, respectively.
The cathodes of the three rectifiers are connected together
. The load RL is connected between the cathodes and the
common return N of the three-phase supply.
The operation of
the circuit may be
demonstrated by
considering the
action of each
individual rectifier.
Assume in
Fig.-2 that switches S2 and S3 are open and that switch S1
is closed. Diode D1 then operates as a single-phase half-
wave rectifier, and the waveforms from anode to common
and across the load. We know, of course, that D1 conducts
only during the half-cycle when its anode voltage is
positive with respect to the cathode.When switches S1 and
S2 are both closed and S3 is open, we have a circuit which
schematically resembles a single-phase full-wave rectifier,
but is actually different. The difference arises from the , fact
that in a single-phase full-wave rectifier the voltages on
the anodes of the two rectifiers are 180° out of phase,
whereas in the circuit of Fig-2 the Voltages on the anodes of
D1, and D2 are 120° out of phase. Figure -3(a) shows the
voltages A and B, applied to the anodes of D1 and D2
respectively, superimposed on a common time base. We
see further that there is a period in each cycle (t1, and t2)
when the positive alternations of voltages A and B
overlap, as indicated by the shaded portions of the graph.
It might appear as though each of the rectifiers D1 and D2
conducts during the overlap interval.
To facilitate our explanation of the circuit, we will make an
approximation and an assumption: only one rectifier
conducts at any one time, and this is the diode whose
positive anode voltage is highest during the interval. Thus
the overlap interval of A and B may be divided into two equal
periods t1 and t2. During the time t1 voltage A is more
positive than voltage B. During the interval t2, voltage B is
more positive than voltage A. Accordingly, D1 conducts up
to the end of interval t1, when it is cut off. D2 starts
conducting
at the end of
interval t1,
and is cut off
when its
positive anode
voltage drops
to zero (approximately).
Now, in the interval t1 , D1 is conducting. Hence, A is the
voltage at the anode and also at the cathode of D2. A
must therefore also be the voltage at the cathode of D2,
which is directly connected to the cathode of D1 , the
voltage B which is applied to the anode of D2 is lower
than the voltage A during the interval t1Hence, D2cannot
conduct during the time t1 because its anode is negative
with respect to its cathode during this interval. Figure 3 b
shows the voltage waveform which would appear
across the load resistance RL. Current through the resistive
load is in phase with the
voltage, and hence the waveform of Fig, -3b is also the
current wave. We see that current through the load rises to a
peak twice during a complete cycle of input voltage, and
that these current peaks are 120° apart. Current through the
load ceases for approximately 60° when the anodes of both
rectifiers are negative with respect to their cathodes.
Now, if we close switch S3, applying voltage C to
the anode of D3, the circuit of Fig. 2 becomes a
three-phase half-wave rectifier. We can analyze
the operation of this circuit in a manner similar to
that of the preceding rectifier. Thus D1 D2, and
D3 will conduct only when their anode voltages
are positive with respect to their cathode
voltages. Moreover, each of the three diodes will
conduct in turn for one-third (120°)_of a complete
cycle. Figure . 4a shows the voltage waveforms
that each of the rectifier anodes "sees,"
superimposed on a common time base. Thus, D1
receives voltage A, D2 receives voltage B, and
D3 receives voltage C. As in our previous
analysis, it is evident there are periods during
which the positive alternations of voltages A and
B, B and C, C and A overlap.
These overlap periods are again shaded in Fig. . - 4a. As
we demonstrated previously, just one diode conducts
during the overlap interval, and this is the rectifier whose
positive anode voltage is highest during the interval. Thus,
in the first overlap interval voltage A is higher than
voltage B during the time t1 Voltage B is higher than
voltage A during
the time t2.
Accordingly,
D1 conducts up
tothe end or
time t1, and is
then cut off.
D2 begins
conducting
at the start
of interal t2.
The envelope of the waveforms shown as A 1, B1,
and C1 in Fig. -4a represents the voltage level during
which rectifiers D1, D2 and D3 are conducting,
respectively. The current waveform across the .resistive
load is shown by Fig, 4b. Observe that current through the
load never drops to zero. Hence, the ripple excursions are
smoother .than they would be in the case of a single-
Phase half- wave or full-wave rectifier.
We can see that a three-phase halt-wave rectifier supplies
a voltage wave to a resistive load which never falls to
zero. The output of a three-phase half-wave rectifier
therefore has a smaller Ripple factor than that of a single-
phase rectifier and a higher average dc voltage. An
arithmetical comparison will bring this fact out clearly.
Thus, the average dc voltage VAV across the resistive
load of a single-phase full-wave rectifier is
Vav = 0.636 Vmax
where Vmax is the peak of the ac input voltage, assuming
zero voltage drop across the rectifier.
The average DC voltage of a three-Phase
half-wave rectifier with resistive load is
yav = 0.831 Vmax ,
As the number of phases increases, the
average dc output voltage and current
increases, and the ripple decreases
Three-phase Half-wave Rectifier with Transformer
A transformerless rectifier has the disadvantage that it is
not line-isolated. A rectifier employing a transformer with
isolated primary and secondary windings overcomes this
disadvantage. Moreover, since the voltage across the
secondary can be stepped either up or down, a greater
range of dc out- put voltage is possible. The circuit of Fig.-
5 illustrates a three-phase half-wave rectifier using a
transformer. The transformer primary is connected in
delta, the secondary in wye (star). Secondary windings
Q1, Q2 and Q3 relate respectively to primary windings Pl
P2, and P3. Lines 1,2, and 3 apply a three-phase voltage
to the primary. Assume switches S1, S2, and S3 are
closed. Then voltage A appears across Q1 and is applied
to the anode of D1. Voltages B and C appear across Q2
and Q3, respectively, and are applied respectively to the
anodes of D2 and D3. The cathodes of Dl, D2, and D3 are
connected together. The resistive load R L, common to
the three rectifiers, is connected from cathode to the
common return
Secondary winding voltages A, B, and C are 120° apart, as are the
primary voltages. Let us assume that the respective transformer
windings are related in a 1:1 ratio. Then, if 120 volts appears
across each of the primary windings, 120 volts will also appear
across each of the secondary windings. Operation of the circuit of
Fig. -4 is then identical with that of Fig. ' -2. The waveforms in Figs.
. -3 and . -4 apply also to the circuit of Fig. 5.
The only
advantage
we have
gained in the
latter circuit
is that of
isolation
from the
line
THREE-PHASE HALF-WAVE CONVERTERS.
Three - phase converters provide higher average output
voltages, and in addition the frequency of the ripples on
the output voltage is higher compared to that of single -
phase converters. As a result, the filtering requirements
for smoothing out the load current and load voltage are
simpler. For these reasons, three-phase converters are
used extensively in high-power variable-speed drives.
When T1 is
fired at
t= /6 +
the phase
voltage Van
appears
across the
load until
T2 is
fired at
t= 5/6 + . When T2 is fired, T1 is reversed biased,
because the line-to-line voltage, Vab is negative and Tl is
turned off. The phase voltage Vbn appears across the
load until T3 is fired at t= 3/6 + . When T3 is fired , T2
is turned off and Vcn appears across the load until Tl is
fired again at the beginning of next cycle.
For a resistive load and > /6, the load current would be
discontinuous and each thyristor is self commutated when
the polarity of its phase voltage is reversed. The
frequency of output ripple voltage is 3fs.
If the phase voltage is Van = Sin(t), the average output
voltage for a continuous load current is
THREE - PHASE SEMICONVERTERS.
Three- phase semiconverters are used in industrial
applications up to the 120-kw level, where one quadrant
operation is required. Fig. Shows a three-phase
semiconverter with a highly jinductive load and the load
current has negligible ripple content. The frequency of
output ripple voltage is 3fs. The delay angle, , can be
varied from 0 to .During the period
/6 t 7/6 , Tl is forfvard biased. If Tl is fired at t=
/6 + ., Tl and Dl conduct and the line to line voltage
Vac appears across the load. At
t= 7/6 , Vac starts to be negative and freewheeling
diode Dm conducts. The load current continues to flow
through Dm; and Tl and Dl are tulrned off. Ig there were
no freewheeling diode, Tl would continue to conduct
until T2 fired at t = 5/6 + ., and freewheeling action
would be accomplished through Tl and D2. If < /3 ,
each thyristor conducts for 2/3 ,each thyristor conducts
for 2/3 and the freewheeling diode Dm does not
conduct
Three-Phase Thyristor Converter Circuits
For large power dc loads, 3-phase ac to dc converters) are
commonly used. The various types of three-phase phase-
controlled converters are 3-bhase half-wave converter, 3-
phase semi-converter, 3-phase full converter and 3-
phase dual converter. Three-phase Semi-converters
and full converters are quite common in industrial
applications. A dual converter is used only when reversible
dc drives with power ratings of several MWatts are
required.
The advantages of three-phase converters over single-
phase converters are as under :
(i) In 3-phase converters, the ripple frequency of the
converter output voltage is higher than in single-phase
converter. Consequently, the filtering requirements for
smoothing out the load current are less.
(ii) The load current is mostly continuous in 3-phase
converters. The load performance, when 3-phase
converters are used, is therefore superior as compared to
when single-phase converted are used.
Three-phase full converters.
The three phase input supply is connected to terminals A, B,
C and the load RLE is connected across the output
terminals of converter as shown. As
numbering of SCRs in Fig.-1(a) is 1, 3, 5 for the positive
group and 4 , 6 , 2 for the negative
For =0°; Tl, T2, T6 behave like diodes.This is shown in
Fig.-1(a). The sequence of conduction of SCRs
Tl to T6 is also
indicated in this
figure. Note
that for =0°,
Tl is triggered
at t = /6, T2
at 90°. T3 at 150°
and so on.
The load voltage has, therefore, the waveform as shown
in Fig-I(b) . For =60°, the conduction sequence of
thyristors Tl to T6 is shown in
Fig-1(b) • Here Tl is triggered at t = 300-|-600 = 90°,
T2 at 90 + 60 = 150° and so on.
If the conduction interval of various thyristors Tl, T2,T6 is
shown first, then it becomes easier to draw the voltage
and current waveforms. Note that each SCR conducts for
1200, when Tl is triggered, reverse biased thyristor T5 is
turned off and Tl is turned on. T6 is already conducting. As
Tl is connected to A and T6 to B, voltage Vab appears
across load. It varies from Vm to zero as shown. Here Vm
is the maximum value of phase voltage. When T2 is turned
on, T6 is commutated from the negative group. TI is
already conducting. As Tl and T2 are connected to A and
C respectively, voltage Vac appears across load.
Note that positive group of SCRs are fired at an interval of
120°. Similarly, negative group of SCRs are fired with an
interval of 120° amongst them. But SCRs from both the
groups are fired at on interval of 60°. This means that
commutation occurs every 60°, alternatively in upper and
lower group of SCRs. Each SCR from both groups
conducts for 120°
At any time, two SCRs, one from the positive group and
the other from negative group, must conduct together for
the source to energies the load. For ABC phase sequence
of the three-phase supply, thyristors conduct in pairs ; Tl
and T2, T2 and T3, T3 and T4 and so on.
The sequence of events, in Fig-1( b) can also be shown
more conveniently if line voltages, instead of phase
voltages, are considered. In Fig-1(c) are shown line
voltages Vab, Vac Vbc, Vba etc. For =0°, SCRs TI,
T2....T6 behave as diodes and the output voltage
waveform is as shown in Fig-1(c), by Vab, Vac Vbc ctc, In
this figure, Tl is turned on at t =60°, T2 at t =120°, T3
at t =180° and so on. In Fig-1(c) , therefore, firing angle
is measured from =60° for Tl, from t =120° for T2, from
t = 180° for T3 and so on.
For =60°, Tl is turned on at t =60+ 60 = 120°, T2 at t
= 180°, T3 at t =240° and so on. When Tl is turned on at
at t =120°, T5 is turned off. T6 is already conducting. As
T1 and T6 are connected to A and B respectively, load
voltage must be vab as shown in Fig-1(c) When T2 is
turned on, T6 is commutated. As Tl and T2 are now
conducting, the load voltage Vac, Fig-1(c)
In this manner, load voltage waveform can be drawn with
the turning on or off of other SCRs in sequence. For =
90°, the load voltage is symmetrical about the reference
line t, therefore its average value is zero. For = 150°,
Tl is triggered at t=210° T2 at 270° and so on. The
output voltage waveform is shown in Fig-I(c) It is, seen
from this figure that average voltage is reversed in
polarity. This means that DC source is delivering power to
AC source ; this is called line-commutated inverter
operation of the 3-phase full converter bridge. It may be
seen from above that for =0° to 90° power circuit of Fig-
1(a) works as a 3-phase full converter delivering
power from AC source to DC load and for = 90° to 180°,
it works as a line-commutated inverter delivering power
from DC source to AC load. It can work in the inverter
mode only if the load has a direct EMF due to a battery or
a DC motor. It should be noted that direction of current for
both converter and inverter operations remains fixed but
the polarity of output voltage reverses.
PERFORMANCE OF RECTIFIERS
If the output voltage of a rectifier is of constant
magnitude as in a battery and it draws
sinusoidal current at unity power factor from the
ac source, then the rectifier is said to have the
best performance.
But it is not so in practical rectifiers.
The output voltage of a practical rectifier has
segments of the input ac voltage and hence it
contains both dc voltage and ac voltage.
The current drawn from the ac source is not
sinusoidal.
It contains fundamental component and
harmonics.
The power factor at the input of the rectifier is
poor
even for resistive load on dc side and also the
power factor decreases as the triggering angle
is delayed.
The amount of these ac voltage, harmonic
current, input power factor etc. decides the
quality of the rectifiers.
They are calculated based on certain quantities
measured on ac and dc sides.
Quantities on output side
(i) DC quantities on output side
The average dc output voltage = Vdc
The average dc output current = Idc
The output dc power = Pdc = (Vdc)(ldc)
(ii) Total RMS quantities on output side
Since the output contains both dc and ac components,
the total RMS values are
symbolised as follows
The RMS output voltage = Vrms
The RMS output current = Irms
The output ac power = Pac = (Vrms)(lrms)
(iii) Efficiency of rectification
The power expected from a rectifier is due
to the average voltage and the average
current, that is, Pdc whereas it produces a
total power due to both dc and ac
components at the output. The power due
to ac components cannot be utilised in
applications such as battery charger, dc
motor speed control, electroplating,
electromagnetics etc. The efficiency of the
rectifier is decided based on Pdc and Pac.
The efficiency of rectification or rectification
ratio '' is defines as
= Pdc / Pac = Vdc x Idc / Vrms x I rms
(iv) AC components on output side
The RMS value of the output voltage is due to
both DC and ac components. The
RMS value of AC component alone is obtained
by the expression
Vac = [ Vrms2 - Vdc2 ]1/2
A good rectifier produces as low ac voltage (Vac)
as possible. This increases the efficiency of the
rectifier and also makes filtering easy.
(v) Form Factor
The quality of the output voltage depends on the
relative values of dc and ac component and is
defined by form factor. The form factor is defined
as
Form Factor (FF) = Vrms/Vdc
For a good rectifier, the form factor is around
unity.
(vi) Ripple Factor
The rectified output voltage varies with time
due to ac component. The difference
between its maximum and minimum values
is called as the peak-to-peak ripple
voltage. The ripple factor is defined as
Ripple Factor
(RF) = Vac / V dc = [ (Vrms/ Vdc)2 -1]1/2
Quantities on input side
(i) Displacement power factor
The voltage applied to a rectifier is sinusoidal
whereas the current drawn from the ac source is
non sinusoidal due to the switching action of the
rectifying elements. This non sinusoidal current
has a fundamental component. The phase angle
difference between the fundamental component
and the input voltage is called as displacement
angle. In the case of controlled rectifier, the
displacement angle increases with the increase in
triggering angle delay. The displacement power
factor or simply displacement factor (DF) is
defined as
DF = cos
where is the angle between the zero crossing
of the input ac voltage and the fundamental
component of input current
(ii) Harmonic current in ac source
Due to non sinusoidal nature of the input
current, it has fundamental component and
harmonics. The harmonic current Ih is
obtained by subtracting the fundamental
component l1 from the total rms input
current I3. The amount of harmonic current
is defined by harmonic factor (HF) which
can be calculated from the expression as
HF = Ih / I1 = [ (I3 / I1)2 ]1/2 -1
The lower the value of the harmonic factor,
the better is the quality of the rectifier.
(iii) Input power factor
In general the power factor is defines as
power factor = Real power / Apparent power
The sinusoidal input voltage and the fundamental
component of current alone produce real power.
The apparent power is the product of the rms
value of voltage V3 and the rms value of current I3
which includes the harmonic current also. The
power associated with the harmonic current with
fundamental voltage (sinusoidal voltage) does not
constitute any real power. Therefore
Real power = V3 I1 cos
Apparent power = V3I3
Input power factor = V3 I1 cos / V3I3 = I1 / I3
COS
(iv) Transformer utilization factor
Current flows through the windings of a
transformer for full cycle when the transformer
supplies normal loads. When a transformer
supplies a rectifier load, current flows only for part
of cycle and hence the windings are not fully
utilized. The extent to which the transformer is
utilized is given by the term transformer utilization
factor (TUF) which is expressed as
TUF = Pdc / m V3 I3
where V3 is the rms value of transformer phase
voltage
I3 is the total rms current in the transformer phase
winding m is the number of phases of transformer,
It is to be noted that the unit of Pdc is in watts and
that of (m V3I3) is in volt-ampere