REVIEW ON

Human behavior and Crisis

Management
EMMALYN L. FABRO-ACORDA, Rcrim,
MSCrim, CCS
Human behavior refers to the range of behaviors
exhibited by humans and which are influenced by culture,
attitudes, emotions, values, ethics, authority, rapport,
hypnosis, persuasion, coercion and genetics.

Human behavior is studied by the specialized academic

disciplines of psychiatry, psychology, social work,
sociology, economics, and anthropology.
Human behavior is mostly a product of learning, just as the
human being is the product of heredity, environment and
training. Man at birth is considered blank except for
reflexes essential to his survival.
Thus, HUMAN BEHAVIOR is the reaction to facts of a
relationship between the individual and his environment.
Study of human behavior taken
from different viewpoints:
1. Neurological - emphasizes human actions in relation to
events taking place inside the body, specially the brain
and nervous system.
2. Behavior - focuses on those external activities of the
organism that can be observed and measured.
3. Cognitive - concerned with the way the brain processes
and transforms information in various ways.
4. Psychoanalytical - emphasizes unconscious motives
stemming from repressed sexual and aggressive
impulses in childhood.
5. Humanistic - focuses on the subject's experience,
freedom of choice, and motivation toward self-
actualization.
1. Neurological - emphasizes human actions in relation to
events taking place inside the body, specially the brain and
nervous system.
Neurological Psychological Theory seeks to provide an
explanation for seemingly basic questions about the
functioning of the human brain.
2. Behavioral - focuses on those external activities of the
organism that can be observed and measured.
Human behavior is learned, thus all behavior can be
unlearned and new behaviors learned in its place.
Behaviorism is concerned primarily with the observable
and measurable aspects of human behavior. Therefore
when behaviors become unacceptable, they can be
unlearned. Behaviorism views development as a
continuous process in which children play a relatively
passive role. It is also a general approach that is used in a
variety of settings including both clinical and educational.
3. Cognitive - concerned with the way the brain
processes and transforms information in various
ways.
The term cognitive psychology came into use
with the publication of the book Cognitive
Psychology by Ulric Neisser in 1967.
Cognitive Psychology revolves around the notion
that if we want to know what makes people tick
then we need to understand the internal processes
of their mind.
Cognition literally means “knowing”. In other
words, psychologists from this approach study
cognition which is ‘the mental act or process by
which knowledge is acquired.’
4. Psychoanalytical - emphasizes unconscious motives
stemming from repressed sexual and aggressive impulses
in childhood.
In deliberate contrast to behavioral psychology,
psychodynamic psychology ignores the trappings of
science and instead focuses on trying to get 'inside the
head' of individuals in order to make sense of their
relationships, experiences and how they see the world.
The psychodynamic approach includes all the theories
in psychology that see human functioning based upon the
interaction of drives and forces within the person,
particularly unconscious, and between the different
structures of the personality.
5. Humanistic - focuses on the subject's
experience, freedom of choice, and motivation
toward self-actualization.
Humanistic, humanism and humanist are terms
in psychology relating to an approach which
studies the whole person, and the uniqueness of
each individual. Essentially, these terms refer the
same approach in psychology.
Humanism is a psychological approach that
emphasizes the study of the whole person.
Humanistic psychologists look at human behavior
not only through the eyes of the observer, but
through the eyes of the person doing the
behaving.
habitual – motorized reactions
manifested in emotions and languages
instinctive – unlearned reactions that
comes out by instinct
symbolic – reactions that are manifested
by means of substitution
complex – combination of two or more
behaviors in a given situation

Types of human behavior

sensation – refers to feeling or impression
of the stimulus recorded by man’s senses
◦ visual (sight)
◦ olfactory (smell)
◦ cutaneous (touch)
◦ auditory (hearing)
◦ gustatory (taste)
perception – knowledge of the stimulus
awareness – based on one’s interpretation
and experience of the stimulus or object

Causes of Human Behavior:

People interact with other people by means of three
psychological positions or behavior patterns called EGO
STATES such as:
Parent Ego State –
Characteristically protective, idealistic,
evaluative, righteous, refer to laws, rules
and standards
Adult Ego State -
Reasonable, factual, flexible, and consider
other people as co-equal
Child Ego State -
Rebellious, demanding, selfish,
dependent, impatient and emotional
Intellectual Aspect – this aspect of behavior pertains to
our way of thinking, reasoning, solving problem, processing
info and coping with the environment.
Emotional Aspect – this pertains to our feelings, moods,
temper, and strong motivational force.
Social Aspect – this pertains to how we interact or relate
with other people
Moral Aspect – this refers to our conscience and concept on
what is good or bad.
Psychosexual Aspect - this pertains to our being a man or
a woman and the expression of love
Political Aspect – this pertains to our ideology towards
society/government
Value/Attitude – this pertains to out interest towards
something, our likes and dislikes

ASPECTS OF BEHAVIOR
 TYPES OF BEHAVIOR

a. Overt or Covert Behaviors

Behaviors that are outwardly manifested or those that are directly observable are overt
behaviors. On the other hand, covert behaviors are behaviors that are hidden – not visible to
the naked eye.

b. Conscious or Unconscious Behavior

Behavior is conscious when acts are with in the level of awareness. It is
unconscious when acts are embedded in one’s subconscious – unaware.

c. Simple or Complex Behavior

These are acts categorized according to the number of neurons involved in the process
of behaving. Simple behavior involves less number of neurons while complex behavior
involved more number of neurons, a combination of simple behaviors.

d. Rational or Irrational Behaviors

There is rational behavior when a person acted with sanity or reason and there is
irrational behavior when the person acted with no apparent reason or explanation – as when
a man losses his sanity and laugh out loud at nobody or nothing in particular.

e. Voluntary or Involuntary Behavior

Voluntary behavior is an act done with full volition or will such as when we discriminate,
decide or choose while involuntary behaviors refers the bodily processes that foes on even
when we are awake or asleep like respiration, circulation and digestion.
Behavior may be classified as (Atkinson,
1993):
•Normal Behavior (adaptive or adjusted behavior) –
the standard behavior, the totality accepted behavior
because they follow the standard norms of society.

•Abnormal Behavior (maladaptive/maladjusted

behavior) – behaviors that are deviant from social
expectations because they go against the norms or
standard behavior of society.
DEVIANCE  “any behavior
which violates the
routine
expectations of
others…
 the person
engaging in that
behavior may be
treated as being
‘different’ from
others in some
important way.”
Frank Scarpitti, SOCIAL PROBLEMS
CRIME
Crime is a
form of
deviant
behavior.
 On the other hand, a maladaptive (abnormal)
person may be understood by the following
definitions:
•Abnormal behavior according to deviation of statistical
norms based in statistical frequency.
•Abnormal behavior according to deviation from social
norms.
•Behavior as maladaptive
•Legal Definition
It declares that a person is insane largely on the basis
of his inability to judge between right and wrong or to exert
control over his behavior (Bartol, 1995).
 ASPECTS OF BEHAVIOR
•Intellectual Aspect – this aspect of behavior pertains to our
way of thinking, reasoning, solving problem, processing info
and coping with the environment.
•Emotional Aspect – this pertains to our feelings, moods,
temper, and strong motivational force.
•Social Aspect – this pertains to how we interact or relate with
other people
•Moral Aspect – this refers to our conscience and concept on
what is good or bad.
•Psychosexual Aspect - this pertains to our being a man or a
woman and the expression of love
•Political Aspect – this pertains to our ideology towards
society/government
•Value/Attitude – this pertains to out interest towards
something, our likes and dislikes
 Norms
- indicate societal expectations of
what is right “normal” of what must be
(prescriptive norms)

- May also indicate societal

expectations of what is wrong or
“abnormal” (proscriptive norm)
 Informal norms:

Folkways- define what is socially

approved or disapproved but does not
reflect moral obligation (penalties is
mild, including ridicule and
ostracism)Though should or should not

Mores -more obligatory’ Though must

or must not” and dealt with more
severely including death penalty.
 Formal norms:
Customary Laws- perhaps the
oldest form, and represent
codification of traditional
practices.

Enacted laws- deliberately

recorded by an official
representative
Crimes- (normative definition) any
behavior that is harmful to individual
or groups

Legally any behavior that violates the

criminal laws; it is a wrongful act or
omission subject to official
punishment.

Generic term referring to offense,

felony, delinquency or misdemeanor
 Classifying crime
Criminologists refer to typologies in classifying
crimes and the level of evilness is the basis of
such typology.

Acquisitive/Extinctive

Seasonal/Situational

Episodic/Instant

Static/Continuing

Rational/Irrational
Mala in se (evil in itself) crimes that are
fundamentally evil, such as murder.

Mala prohibita (wrong because it is prohibited)

activities that have been outlawed not because
they are obviously evil, but because they violate
certain standards governing behavior.
 Unlawful Acts
Tort- non criminal or civil offenses

Misdemeanors- less serious offenses and punishable

by not more than one year
• Acts in violation of simple rules and regulations.
Delinquency usually refers to acts committed by
minors.
• Ordinances- deemed very minor and usually localized
and resolved most often by fines.
Felonies- considered more serious and are punishable
usually for more than one year.
• An act or omission punishable by the revised penal
code.

Offense- an act or omission that is punishable by special

laws.
 The Motive refers to the reason or
cause why a person or group of person will
perpetrate a crime.
The Anatomy of Crime The Instrumentality is the means
or implement used in the commission of the
crime.
The Opportunity consists of the
acts of omission and/or commission by a
person (the victim), which enables another
Crime
person or group of persons (the criminal/s)
to perpetrate the crime.
Whether a crime incident would
happen or not, it will depend on the
Motives
presence and merging of Motive,
Instrumentality and Opportunity at the
same time and the same place. The
absence of any one ingredient, out of the
three, will mean there shall be no crime.
 Others explain the birth of criminal behavior by
considering three factors: criminalistic tendencies (T), the
total situation (S), and the person’s mental and emotional
resistance to temptation (R). These factors then can be put
into a formula as:

C=T+S
R
 Origins of Crime Theories

Although crime and criminals have been

around for as long as societies have existed,
the systematic study of these phenomena
did not begin until the late 1700s. Prior to
that time, most explanations of crime
equated it with sin—the violation of a sacred
obligation.
 Early Theories

Demonological Theory
•This theory maintains that criminal behavior was a
result of evil spirits, demons and natural forces that
controls his behavior.

Divine Will Theory (Theology)

•Explains that crimes exist because God permitted it
as a punishment for our sins.
 Pre Twentieth Century Theories

Classical Theory

Emerged in the “Age of Reason” and rejected spiritual

and religious explanations of criminal behavior
(Theological and Demonological)

Charles Secondat, Baron Montesquieu, Voltaire spoke

against French inhumane & inequitable punishment.

Jean Rousseau and Cesare Becaria argued for a radical

new concept of justice.

Social contract- stipulates that all men being created

equal, conditions of the law are the same for all.
Beccaria and Jeremy Bentham assert that
punishment is justified because the offender is
rational and gifted with free will. Every person has
ability to distinguish what is right or wrong and
therefore is responsible since it is his rational
choice to become a law violator.

Hedonism- seeking pleasure and avoid pain.

Deterrence to crime emphasizes certainty of
punishment over its severity.
Neoclassical theory

-maintains the basic belief in free will while paving

for the entry of mitigation /aggravation based on
past criminal records, insanity, retardation and
age.

-Punishment can be justified only if crime is

reasoned behavior.
Positivist Theory and Scientific
Determinism

•Moves to possibility that criminal behavior may be

caused rather than chosen.

•Determinism is denial of free will and that social

behavior is caused by forces beyond human control.

•Scientific approach was used to discover or study

determinants to behaviors. Science focused on crimes
and used to separate out various deterministic factors
(biological, economic, psychological, or social in origin)
Cesare Lombroso- Italian leader of the positivist
school of criminology, and developed scientific approach in
the study of criminal behavior. It earned him the title “father
of modern criminology”.
Atavism- Lombroso states that criminals are atavist
(primitive throwback).
- asserted that criminals are a distinct physical and biological
type. He believed that criminal could be identified by
observing certain physical traits, including a long lower jaw,
asymmetric cranium, and other detectable conditions. These
traits, according to Lombroso, did not cause criminal
behavior, but they revealed an inherent propensity
(inclination) to crime
He classified criminals as:
1. Born Criminals- 30% of all criminals
2. Abnormal Criminals- Idiots, imbeciles, paranoids
3. Occasional Criminals- a). Criminaloids b). Pseudo
Criminals c). Criminals out of habit
Auguste Comte- understood criminal behavior in the
sociological perspective applicable to human as social
beings.

Enrico Ferri- Lombroso’s associate, recognized the

importance of social, economic, and political determinants
as cause of crimes. He attacked the free will and argued that
criminals should not be held morally responsible for their
acts because they did not choose to become criminals but
rather were driven by certain conditions.

Raffaele Garofalo- he rejected free will and agreed that the

only way to understand crime is to study it by scientific
methods. He traced roots of criminal behavior not on
physical features but to their psychological equivalents
which he termed “moral anomalies”.
Biological and Biochemical Theories

Physiognomy- explained mental qualities, character, and

personality based on their external physical characteristics
especially facial features.

Baptista della Porte- founded physiognomy (small ears and

bushy eyebrows indicate criminal types.)

Johan Caspar Lavater- (Phrenology) he classified persons

according to certain physical qualities called “fragments”.
Shifty eye, beardless men, weak chin were untrustworthy.
Phrenology- looked at the skulls shape and protuberance
suggesting manifest of criminality.

Franz Joseph Gall- described his study of human skull

as craniology.

John Gasper Spurzheim- emphasized the skulls

shape and any facial imperfections.

Social Darwinism- studied on human evolution and its

effect to society specifically survival of the fittest.
•Included the idea that natural selection shaped humanity.

•Charles Darwin
 Criminal Anthropology
Cesare Lombroso- studied convicts using
anthropometry (branch of anthropology that uses
body measurement to determine differences in
races and individuals)
Atavistic Stigmata- peculiar physical
characteristics resembling the early ancestors of
man (the apes)
Charles Goring- refuted the born criminal and
proved to his work that there is no such thing as a
physical criminal type.
 Criminal Anthropology

Earnest Albert Hooton- made comparison on body

measurements of criminals and non criminals and found
certain significant difference such as, anthropometric
measurements, tattooing, low sloping forehead, etc. He also
analyzed body types with relation to crime types.
Eugenics- Eugenics is the science of improving
the human species by selectively mating people with
specific desirable hereditary traits. It aims to reduce
human suffering by “breeding out” disease,
disabilities and so-called undesirable characteristics
from the human population. Early supporters of
eugenics believed people inherited mental illness,
criminal tendencies and even poverty, and that
these conditions could be bred out of the gene pool.
 Criminal Body Types
Principal Types of Physique- idea of somatotyping
originally from the work of Ernest Kretschmer
(Athletic, Asthenic, Pyknic)

William Sheldon also explain the criminal man.

He yielded a specific body type (somatotyping)
accompanying a temperament.
( Mesomporphic, Endomorphic, Ectomorphic)
 Genetics
•It is the study of heredity. It explains the effect of
chromosomes and genes as carriers of human
hereditary characteristics.

•These science upon the rediscovery of Gregor

Mendel’s work on inherited characteristic or trait.
Biochemistry and Crimes

•Studies reaction of CNS to certain substances or

chemicals which may have been taken into the body
or secretions produced by the body. Studies involved
effects of substances and chemicals to the body.
•It also involved studies correlating food, toxins and
crime
 Sociological and Environmental Theories
Gabriel Tarde- believed that persons
predisposed to crime are attracted to criminal
activity by the example of other criminals.
Social Disorganization Theory
Social Ecology- used by Clifford Shaw and
Henry McKay to study geographic distribution of
law-violating behavior. They equated social
disorganization with weak community controls,
which led to geographic area with crime and
delinquency.
Differential Association Theory
Edwin Sutherland (Dean of Modern Criminology)- maintains
that society is composed of different group organization
having criminal tradition and some non criminalistic, and that
man learn criminal behavior through association with certain
groups and not inherited.
Containment Theory
Walter Reckless- this theory explains that for every individual
there exist some form of control, which suggest that series of
both internal and external factors contributes to criminal
behavior.
Strain Theory
Robert King Merton- he maintained that failure of men to
achieve higher status of life caused them to commit crime in
order to attain that status or goal.
Sub-Culture Theory

Albert Cohen- claims that the lower class cannot socialize effectively
as the middle class, thus gather together takes the middle class values
but does the opposite.
Neutralization Theory or DRIFT THEORY
Gresham Sykes- maintained that an individual will obey or disobey
societal rules depending on her ability to rationalize whether they will be
benefited by it.
1. Denial of responsibility
2. Denial of Injury
3. Denial of Victim
4. Condemnation of Condemners
5. Appeal to higher loyalties
Differential Opportunity Theory
Lloyd Ohlin- claimed that there is differential opportunity, or access to
succeed in goals by both legitimate and illegitimate means depending on
the specific location of an individual within the social structure.
Anomie Theory
Emile Durkheim- sees society in terms of its structural
parts and functions; crime is related to the loss of social
stability. Durkheim used the term anomie to describe the
feelings of alienation and confusion associated with the
breakdown of social bonds.
-”State of normlessness”

Labeling Theory (Frank Tennenbaum, Edwin Lemert,

Howard Becker)
•This theory explains that behaviors becomes criminal due
to labeling as a social reaction to behavior.
Social Class Conflict and Capitalist Theory
Karl Marx, Frederick Engel, Willem Bonger- crime is a result
of criminal laws and its interpretation by the ruling class and
capitalist.

Human Ecology Theory (Robert Ezra Park)

•This theory maintains that crime is a function of social
change that occurs along with environmental change.
Psychological Abnormalities and Learning
Theories

Psychology- examines individual human and

animal behavior; it is concerned with the mind
and mental process such as feelings, desires,
motivation and the like.

Psychiatry- the branch of medicine primarily

concerned with the study and treatment of mental
disorders including psychoses and neuroses.
 Psychoanalytic Theories
Psychoanalysis, is applied to a specific
method of investigating unconscious mental
processes and to a form of psychotherapy.
The term refers, as well, to the systematic
structure of psychoanalytic theory, which is
based on the relation of conscious and
unconscious psychological processes.
Sigmund Freud- viewed the unconscious as
essentially dynamic and capable of intensely affecting
conscious or emotional life without the individuals being
aware of this influence.

He divided unconscious mental phenomena into 3

groups:
•Conscious- those phenomena which we are currently
aware
•Preconscious- thoughts and memories, just below the
surface, that we can easily call into consciousness
•Unconscious- repressed memories and attendant
emotions that we can pull to the conscious level only with
much effort.
The Unconscious Mind
Freud (1900, 1905) developed a topographical model of
the mind, whereby he described the features of mind’s
structure and function.

In this model the conscious mind (everything we are

aware of) is seen as the tip of the iceberg, with the
unconscious mind a repository of a ‘cauldron’ of primitive
wishes and impulse kept at bay and mediated by the
preconscious area.

However, Freud found that some events and desires

were often too frightening or painful for his patients to
acknowledge. Freud believed such information was
locked away in a region he called the unconscious mind.
This happens through the process of repression.
Stages of Psychosexual Development:

1. Oral stage (birth to 18 months)- the mouth,

lips, and tongue are the dominant organs of
pleasure for the infant. The source of pleasure
becomes associated with touch and warmth of
parents.

2. Anal stage (18 months -3 yrs)- anus

becomes the primary source of sexual interest
and gratification, and closely connects pleasure
to the retention and expulsion of feces. In this
stage partially socialized child act out
destructive urges, breaking toys or even
harming living organisms.
3. Phallic Stage – (3-6 years) – Genitals become
the primary source of pleasure. The child’s erotic
pleasure focuses on masturbation, that is, on self-
manipulation of the genitals. He develops a sexual
attraction to the parent of the opposite sex.
a. Oedipus Complex – this refers to an instance
where in boys build up a warm and loving
relationship with mothers.
b. Electra Complex – This refers to an occasion
where in girls experience an intense emotional
attachment for their fathers.
4. Latent stage (6 to 11 years) child experiences
lessening of interest in sexual organs. Non sexual,
expanded relationships with same-sex and same-
age playmates become paramount.
5. Genital Stage (11 years on)– This refers of puberty and genital
stage; there is renewed interest in obtaining sexual pleasure through
the genitals. Masturbation often becomes more frequent and leads to
orgasm for the first time. Sexual and romantic interests in others also
become a central motive.

6. Adolescence/adulthood stage (13 to death) Genital interest and

awareness awakens. Late adolescents and young adults repress the
incestuous wish, and mature sexuality replaces it.
Psychosexual Stages

Freud sought to understand the nature and variety of these

illnesses by retracing the sexual history of his patients. This was not
primarily an investigation of sexual experiences as such. Far more
important were the patient’s wishes and desires, their experience of
love, hate, shame, guilt and fear – and how they handled these
powerful emotions.

It was this that led to the most controversial part of Freud’s work –
his theory of psychosexual development and of the Oedipus complex

Freud believed that children are born with a libido – a sexual

(pleasure) urge. There are a number of stages of childhood, during
which the child seeks pleasure from a different ‘object’.
Psychic Development

The first 3 stages is a stage of

undergoing development of 3 Psychic
Phenomena:

Id

Ego

Superego
The Psyche
•Id – id impulses define humans as hedonistic. This powerful
drives seeks immediate discharge or gratification without
restraint.

•Ego- (the great mediator)- infant modify their id drives

through contact with the world around them and through
parental training. Ego acts as a restraining influence to control
id drives. The ego, which is the domain of such functions as
perception, thinking, and motor control that can accurately
assess environmental conditions.

•Superego- often viewed as conscience-type mechanism, a

counterforce to the id. It exercises a criticizing power, a sense
of morality over the ego.
 Freud assumed the id operated at an unconscious
level according to the pleasure principle. The id contains
two kinds of biological instincts (or drives)
Eros, or life instinct, helps the individual to survive; it
directs life-sustaining activities such as respiration,
eating and sex (Freud, 1925). The energy created by the
life instincts is known as libido.

Thanatos or death instinct, is viewed as a set of

destructive forces present in all human beings (Freud,
1920). When this energy is directed outward onto others,
it is expressed as aggression and violence. Freud
believed that Eros are stronger than Thanatos, thus
enabling people to survive rather than self-destruct.
The ego develops from the id during infancy. The egos goal is to
satisfy the demands of the id in a safe a socially acceptable way. In
contrast to the id the ego follows the reality principle as it operates
in both the conscious and unconscious mind.

The superego develops during early childhood (when the child

identifies with the same sex parent) and is responsible for ensuring
moral standards are followed. The Superego operates on the
morality principle and motivates us to behave in a socially
responsible and acceptable manner.

The superego can make a person feel guilty if rules are not
followed. When there is conflict between the goals of the id and
superego the ego must act as a referee and mediate this conflict.
The ego can deploy various defense mechanisms (Freud, 1894,
1896) to prevent it from becoming overwhelmed by anxiety.
 To be psychologically healthy, we
must successfully complete each
stage. Mental abnormality can occur
if a stage is not completed
successfully – the person becomes
‘fixated’ in a particular stage. This
particular theory shows how adult
personality is determined by their
childhood experiences.
Psychic drives- Id drives force a person to
act leading to cessation of tension or excitement
caused by the drives, person seeks discharge or
gratification. Primary process tends to
immediate and direct gratification of the id
impulses; Secondary process involves the
tendency to shift from the original object or
method of discharge when something blocks a
drive. Shift may also occur when gratification is
inaccessible by legitimate, acceptable means.
Psychology of Human Adjustment
Most of man's behavior can be traced to his attempt to
satisfy his needs. Each of us has certain fundamental
needs that we seek to satisfy. These needs create
tensions to the human body. When we are able to satisfy
these needs, the tension disappears. Adjustment has
been made. Adjustment has been defined as the
satisfaction of a need.

There are three elements in the adjustment process:

a. a need, which arouses
b. purposive behavior, leading toward
c. a goal, which satisfies the needs
Human needs arise out of a person's
biological or psychological make-up.
They can be biogenic needs which are the
needs of the body which exists for the
maintenance of health and protection of the
body against physical injuries. These include
the need for food, air, water, rest, sex,
avoidance of pain.

They can also be psychogenic or

sociogenic needs such as the need for love
and affection, for security, for growth and
achievement and recognition of other human
beings.
 Abraham Maslow has suggested that human needs
form a hierarchy from the most basic biological requirements
to the needs for self-actualization – the highest of all needs.
The Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

In satisfying these needs, the lower needs has to be satisfied

first before one can seek to satisfy the higher needs. If the basic needs
are satisfied, an individual will seek to satisfy his security needs. As
soon as his security needs are satisfied, he now seeks to satisfy his
social needs. We could not expect a person, therefore, to try to seek
social acceptance if his security needs are not satisfied.
 To fully understand behavior we should consider other
determinants of behavior to include the following:

Needs, Drives and Motivations

Need, according to a drive reduction theory, is a

biological requirement for well being of the individual. Need
creates drives.

Drive, in psychology, is motivation or compulsion behind

actions or desires. The term is sometimes used in the same sense as
the words motive and need.
Primary drives are not learned but are present in an organism
from birth or appear with growth. Most primary drives are the direct
result of physiological needs.

Secondary drives, in contrast, are acquired by the

individual organism through learning and may originate as a
means of fulfilling primary drives.
 Motivation on the other hand refers to the influences that
govern the initiation, direction, intensity, and persistence of
behavior (Bernstein, et al, 1991). Psychological theories
must account for a “primary” level of motivation to satisfy
basic needs, such as those for food, oxygen, and water, and
for a “secondary” level of motivation to fulfill social needs
such as companionship and achievement. The primary
needs must be satisfied before an organism can attend to
secondary drives.

Drives are states of comfortable tension that

spurs activity until a goal is reached.
 Human needs cannot always be satisfied. Obstacle and
difficulties sometimes stand in the way between the individual
and his goal. These obstacles may lie in the individual's
environment or they may be in the individual himself.

Some of the reasons why some people fail to reach their

goals are:
a. unrealistic goals - when the person's level of aspiration is
much higher than his level of achievement, he is bound to fail.
b. harmful or anti-social goal
c. conflicting goals
d. environmental difficulties, including force majeure
Frustration occurs when a person is blocked in the
satisfaction of his needs. A person faced with
frustration become anxious and restless, and he tries
to seek means in relieving these anxieties. He tries to
engage in various forms of activities that are intended
to satisfy his needs and reduce his tensions.
Frustration refers to the unpleasant feelings that result
from the blocking of motive satisfaction. It is a form of stress,
which results in tension. It is a feeling that is experienced
when something interferes with our hopes, wishes, plans and
expectations (Coleman, 1980).
The common sources of frustration are:
1. Physical obstacles – are physical barriers or
circumstances that prevent a person from doing his plan or
fulfilling his wishes.
2. Social Circumstances – are restrictions or circumstances
imposed by other people and the customs and laws of social
living.
3. Personal Shortcoming – such as being handicapped by
diseases, deafness, paralysis, etc. which serves as a barrier
to the things one ought to do.
Conflict refers to the simultaneous arousal of two or more
incompatible motives resulting to unpleasant emotions. It is a source of
frustration because it is a threat to normal behavior (Berstein, et al,
1991).
Types of Conflicts
1. Double Approach Conflict – a person is motivated to engage in two
desirable activities that cannot be pursued simultaneously.
2. Double Avoidance Conflict – a person faces two undesirable
situations in which the avoidance of one is the exposure to the other
resulting to an intense emotion.
3. Approach-Avoidance Conflict – a person faces situation having both a
desirable and undesirable feature. It is sometimes called “dilemma”,
because some negative and some positive features must be accepted
regardless of which course of action is chosen.
4. Multiple Approach-Avoidance Conflict – a situation in which a choice
must be made between two or more alternatives each has both positive
and negative features. It is the mot difficult to resolve because the
features of each portion are often difficult to compare.
 Anxiety is an intangible feeling that seems to
evade any effort to resolve it. It is also called
neurotic fear. It could be intense; it could be low and
can be a motivating force (Coleman, 1980).

Stress is the process of adjusting to or dealing

with circumstances that disrupts, or threatens to
disrupt a person’s physical or psychological
functioning (Bernstein, et al, 1991)
Reaction to frustration - people differ in the way they
react to frustration. An individual's way of reacting to
frustration is sometimes known as his coping
mechanism.
Generally, people faced with frustration react in one of two
ways:
by fighting the problem in constructive and direct way by
breaking down the obstacle barring him from his goals, by
getting angry and become aggressive;

or by running away from the problem (flight) by sulking,

retreating, becoming indifferent, and giving out without a
fight. These reactions to frustrations are sometimes called
fight-flight reactions.
Frustration tolerance - individuals also differ in their
capacity to tolerate unadjusted state, or frustration tolerance.
Some are able to withstand prolonged periods of tension
without showing signs of abnormality, others become neurotic
or psychotic, or convert their frustrations into physical illness,
while some act their frustration by committing anti-social acts
or becoming alcoholics or drug addicts, most normal persons
react to frustration in the following way:

Direct approach
Developing feelings of inferiority
Detour
Aggression
Substitution
Use of defense mechanism
Withdrawal or retreat
Defense mechanism - these are
unconscious psychological processes
that act as safety valves to provide
relief from emotional conflict and
anxiety. They are forms of self-
deception, which the person may not
be aware of and are resorted to
whenever psychological equilibrium is
threatened by severe emotional injury
arising from frustration. This is
initiated by the mind to adapt to the
environment.
Unhealthy Reactions to Frustrations

- some individuals are incapable of making

effective adjustments to their frustrations.
They have not learned healthy and effective
adjustment habits; hence they are not
emotionally ready to cope with difficult
problems confronting them. As a result,
they may react to frustration in random,
impulsive, and inadequate manner that
does not relieve them from the tension, but
in fact increase the maladjustment.
Among these behavior patterns considered as unhealthy reactions to
frustration are the following:
a. Anxiety - apprehension, tension, and uneasiness from anticipation of
danger, the source of which is largely unknown or unrecognized.
b. Phobia - an irrational fear which is fixed, intense, uncontrollable, and
often has no reasonable foundation.

Acrophobia Heights
Ailophobia Cats
Amaxophobia Vehicles/Driving
Anuptaphobia Staying single
Aquaphobia Water/Swimming
Arachnophobia Spiders
Astraphobia Storms/Thunder/Lighting
Airophobia Flying/Airplanes
Biblophobia Books
Blennophobia Slime
Bogyphobia Demons
Cathisophobia Sitting down
Cibophobia Food
Claustrophobia Confinement
Coitophobia Sexual intercourse
Cremnophobia Precipices
Cynophobia Dogs
Demophobia Crowds
Dromophobia Crossing streets
Ecophobia Home
Entomophobia Insects
Gamophobia Marriage
Geascophobia Crossing bridge or large
water
Gymnophobia Nudity
Hamatophobia Sins or sinning
Hapephobia Touching or being
touched
Hematophobia Blood
Hodophobia Travels
Homilophobia Sermons
Kinesophobia Motion
Kopophobia Mental or physical
exams
Lygophobia Dark
Mersophobia Darkness
Ocholophobia Crowds
Odontiatophobia Dentists
Ophiophobia Snakes
Opthalomophobia Being stared at
Onomatophobia Certain word or name
Panophobia Everything
Paralipophobia Responsibility
Pathophobia Disease
Philophobia Falling in love
Phobophobia Fears
Pyrophobia Fire
Phyrotophobia Getting wrinkles
Selenophobia Moon
Telephonophobia Telephone
Trophophobia Moving
Thanotophobia Death or dying
Zenophobia Strangers
Zoophobia Animals in general
c. Obsession or Compulsion - an obsession is an idea that persistently
reoccurs in a person's mind sometimes against his even though it may have
no reasonable foundation. A compulsion is an irresistible impulse to perform
certain acts that are repetitive and ritualistic.
d. Regression - a behavior pattern wherein the individual returns to state of
former adjustments and attempts to experience them again in memory.
e. Memory disorders or amnesia - a false belief firmly held despite
incontrovertible proof of evidence to the contrary.
g. Hallucinations - a sensory perception in the absence of an actual external
stimulus.
 Who are Normal?
From the point of view of human adjustment, a normal
person is one who behaves according to the norms and
standards of the society. When a person's behavior deviates
too far from these norms, we call him abnormal. In the final
analysis, the demarcation line between normal and
abnormal, the sane and the insane, is wholly a matter of
degree. Among the characteristics of normal, well-adjusted
persons are the following:
a. Free expression of one's personality
b. Adequate security feelings
c. Efficient contact with reality
d. Adoptability to group norms
e. Emotional maturity
f. Adequate self-knowledge
g. Integrated and consistent personality
 Who are abnormal?
When a person fails to meet the criteria enumerated above, we call
him an abnormal person. When a person is frustrated in his attempts to
adjust himself to different situations over a long period of time, he may try
to escape from these conflicts by doing one of several things:
a. He may compromise with reality by developing imaginary ailments,
phobias, obsessions or compulsions. This condition is known as
neurosis.
b. He may withdraw from the real world into the world of fantasy and
make-believe where his hidden or unexpressed desires can be fulfilled. In
this state of mind, the person becomes psychotic.
c. Instead of compromising with reality or withdrawing into his hell, the
person may go to the other extreme and may become very aggressive and
cruel in his behavior towards others. He is then known as anti-social
personality or psychopath or sociopath, and when his anti-social behavior
comes in conflict with the law, he becomes a criminal.
Psychoneurotic - are persons who are in the
twilight zone between normality and abnormality.
They are not insane, but neither are they normal.
The neurotic is always tense, restless and anxious.
Frequently, they have obsessions, compulsions,
phobias, and in some cases, amnesia. Anxiety is the
dominant characteristics.
Psychosis - is regarded as the most severe type
of mental disorder. A psychotic has tensions that
disturbed thinking, feeling, and sense; the perception
of reality is distorted. He may have delusions and
hallucinations.
Sociopath or psychopath - are persons who
do not have any neurotic or psychotic symptoms
but are not able to conform with prevailing customs
and standard of conducts of his social group. Some
common characteristics of psychopaths are:
a. absence of conscience
b. emotional immaturity
c. absence of a life plan
d. lack of capacity for love and emotional
involvement
e. failure to learn from experience
Criminality as a reaction to frustration

- psychologists believe that the most crimes result

from personality trait disturbance brought about as
a result of the individual's interaction with his social
environment. Psychological theories of crime revolve
around the idea that the person commits crime
because of unfulfilled needs and internal mental
conflicts. They claimed that delinquency or
criminality is one of the many ways by which a
person can maintain emotional balance or
equilibrium. Instead of becoming a neurotic or
psychotic, a person may act out his hidden wishes
and commit a criminal act.
 Group of Neurotic Disorders
Anxiety Disorders
Anxiety, is a term used by mental health professionals to mean the
same as fear or worry.
These disorders are characterized by mild depressions, fear
and tensions, and mild stresses.

The classifications of anxiety disorders are the following:

Obsessive-compulsive disorders
Obsessive-compulsive disorder is a common mental illness in
which people feel burdened by unwanted thoughts or forced to repeat
troublesome actions. Unwanted thoughts, called obsessions, often
include unreasonable fear of dirt or germs. Another common obsession
involves fear of losing control and hurting oneself or others. Many
patients also feel a need to perform repeated actions, called
compulsions, to prevent harmful events. Some wash their hands
excessively to avoid infection. Unreasonable repetition of everyday
routines.
 Asthenia Disorders (Neurasthenia)
An anxiety disorder characterized by chronic mental and
physical fatigue and various ache and pains.

Phobia
Is a persistent, strong fear of a certain object or situation.

Panic disorder
is a mental illness characterized by sudden,
unexpected attacks of intense fear or terror. The
attacks are accompanied by symptoms of bodily
illness. People commonly experience panic when
facing danger. In people with panic disorder,
however, attacks of panic occur without obvious
reason.
 SOMATOFORM DISORDERS

Somatoform disorders are mental illnesses in which a

person experiences physical symptoms with no explainable
cause. Symptoms that commonly occur in somatoform
disorders include chest pain, shortness of breath, sexual
problems, and muscle weakness or paralysis. The
classifications of Somatoform Disorders are as follows:
Hypochondriasis – the excessive concern about state of
health or physical condition (multiplicity about illness)
Psychogenic Pain Disorder – characterized by the report of
severe and lasting pain. Either no physical basis is apparent
reaction is greatly in excess of what would be expected from
the physical abnormality.
 Conversion Disorders (Hysteria) – a neurotic
pattern in which symptoms of some physical
malfunction or loss of control without any underlying
organic abnormality.

Sensory Symptoms of Hysteria

•Anasthesia – loss of sensitivity
•Hyperesthesia – excessive sensitivity
•Hypesthesia – partial loss of sensitivity to pain
•Analgesia – loss of sensitivity to pain
•Paresthesia – exceptional sensation

Motor Symptoms of Hysteria

•Paralysis – selective loss of function of the body parts
•Astasia-abasia – inability to control leg when standing
•Aphasia – partial inability to speak
•Mutism – total inability to speak
 DISSOCIATIVE DISORDERS
mental illnesses characterized by dissociation, a failure to integrate
information about one’s personal identity, memories, sensations, and
states of consciousness into a unified whole.
A response to obvious stress characterized by:
•Amnesia – partial or total inability to recall or identify past experiences
following a traumatic incident.
•Brain pathology amnesia – total loss of memory and it cannot be
retrieved by simple means. It requires long period of medication.
•Psychogenic amnesia – failure to recall stored information and still they
are beneath the level of consciousness but “forgotten material.”
•Multiple Personality – also called “dual personalities.” The reason
manifests two or more symptoms of personality usually dramatically
different.
•Depersonalization – loss of sense of self or the so-called out of body
experience. There is a feeling of detachment from one’s mental processes
or body or being in a dream state. Cases of somnambulism (sleep
walking) may fall under this disorder.
 MOOD DISORDERS (AFFECTIVE DISORDERS)
Mood disorders, also known as affective disorders, mainly
involve disturbances in the person's mood.
Mood disorders are classified as follows:
Depressive Disorders
Major Depressive Disorder
Patients with depressed mood have a loss of energy and
interest, feeling of guilt, difficulty in concentrating, loss of
appetite, and thoughts of death or suicide, they are not affected
with manic episodes.
Dysthymic Disorder – mild form of major depressive
disorder
Bipolar Disorders
Those experienced by patients with both manic and depressive
episodes.
Cyclothymic Disorder – a less severe form of bipolar
disorder
 Group of Personality Disorder
a. Antisocial Personality Disorder
People with antisocial personality disorder act in a way that
disregards the feelings and rights of other people. Antisocial personalities
often break the law, and they may use or exploit other people for their own
gain. People with this disorder are also sometimes called sociopaths or
psychopaths. Antisocial behavior in people less than 18 years old is called
conduct disorder.

b. Borderline Personality Disorder

People with borderline personality disorder experience intense
emotional instability, particularly in relationships with others. They may
make frantic efforts to avoid real or imagined abandonment by others.
They may experience minor problems as major crises. They may also
express their anger, frustration, and dismay through suicidal gestures,
self-mutilation, and other self-destructive acts. They tend to have an
unstable self-image or sense of self.
c. Avoidant Personality Disorder
Avoidant personality disorder is social withdrawal due to intense,
anxious shyness. People with avoidant personalities are reluctant to
interact with others unless they feel certain of being liked. They fear being
criticized and rejected. Often they view themselves as socially inept and
inferior to others.

d. Dependent Personality Disorder

Dependent personality disorder involves severe and disabling
emotional dependency on others. People with this disorder have difficulty
making decisions without a great deal of advice and reassurance from
others. They urgently seek out another relationship when a close
relationship ends. They feel uncomfortable by themselves.

e. Histrionic Personality Disorder

People with histrionic personality disorder constantly strive to be the
center of attention. They may act overly flirtatious or dress in ways that
draw attention. They may also talk in a dramatic or theatrical style and
display exaggerated emotional reactions.
f. Narcissistic Personality Disorder
People with narcissistic personality disorder have a grandiose sense
of self-importance. They seek excessive admiration from others and
fantasize about unlimited success or power. They believe they are
special, unique, or superior to others. However, they often have very
fragile self-esteem.

g. Obsessive-Compulsive Personality Disorder

Obsessive-compulsive personality disorder is characterized by a
preoccupation with details, orderliness, perfection, and control. People
with this disorder often devote excessive amounts of time to work and
productivity and fail to take time for leisure activities and friendships.
They tend to be rigid, formal, stubborn, and serious.

h. Paranoid Personality Disorder

People with paranoid personality disorder feel constant suspicion and
distrust toward other people. They believe that others are against them
and constantly look for evidence to support their suspicions. They are
hostile toward others and react angrily to perceived insults.
i. Schizoid Personality Disorder
Schizoid personality disorder involves social isolation and
a lack of desire for close personal relationships. People with
this disorder prefer to be alone and seem withdrawn and
emotionally detached. They seem indifferent to praise or
criticism from other people.
j. Schizotypal Personality Disorder
People with schizotypal personality disorder engage in odd
thinking, speech, and behavior. They may ramble or use
words and phrases in unusual ways, and they may believe
they have magical control over others. They feel very
uncomfortable with close personal relationships and tend to
be suspicious of others. Some research suggests this disorder
is a less severe form of schizophrenia.
 Criminal Behavior

The disorder used to describe the behavior of a

person who commits serious crimes from individual
to property crimes and the disobedience of societal
rules in general.
“Dyssocial Personality” is the term used to
refer to these individuals (not anti-social) but
particularly those who violate law and practice “crime
as a profession”. They are not normally associated
with any significant personality disturbances.
 As a study, criminal behavior refers to the human conduct
focused on the mental processes of the criminal: the way he
behaves or acts including his activities and the causes and
influences of his criminal behavior.
Common Characteristics of Anti-social Personalities
(Coleman, 1980)
•Inadequate conscience development and unable to accept
ethical values
•Irresponsible and impulsive behavior; low frustration
tolerance
•Ability to impress and exploit others; projecting blame unto
others of their own anti-social acts.
•Rejection of authority.
•Inability to maintain good interpersonal relationship.
 Psychosis
Psychosis, mental illness in which a person loses
contact with reality and has difficulty functioning in
daily life. Psychotic symptoms can indicate severe
mental illnesses, such as schizophrenia and bipolar
disorder (manic-depressive illness). Unlike people
with less severe psychological problems, psychotic
individuals do not usually recognize that their
mental functioning is disturbed.
 Organic Mental Disorders
A diagnosis of organic mental disorder is associated with a specific,
identified organic cause, such as abnormalities of the brain structure.
These are mental disorder that occurs when the normal brain has been
damage resulted from any interference of the functioning of the brain.

Types of Organic Mental Disorders (Coleman, 1980)

a.Acute brain disorder – caused by a diffuse impairment of the brain
function. Its symptoms range from mild mood changes to acute delirium

b.Chronic brain disorder – the brain disorder that result from injuries,
diseases, drugs, and a variety of other conditions. Its symptoms include
impairment of orientation (time, place and person), impairment of
memory, learning, comprehension and judgment, emotion and self-
control.
Groups of Organic Mental Disorders (Coleman, 1980)
a. Delirium – the severe impairment of information processing in the
brain affecting the basic process of attention, perception, memory and
thinking.
b. Dementia – deterioration in intellectual functioning after completing
brain maturation. It is a defect affecting the process of acquiring
knowledge or skill, problem solving, and judgment.
c. Amnesic Syndrome – the inability to remember on going events
more than a few minutes after they have taken place.
d. Hallucinosis – the persistent occurrence of hallucinations, the false
perception that arise in full wakefulness state. This includes
hallucinations on visual and hearing or both.
e. Organic Delusional Syndrome – the false belief arising in a setting
of known or suspected brain damage.
f. Organic Affective Syndrome – the extreme/severe manic or
depressive state with the impairment of the cerebral function.
g. Organic Personality Syndrome – the general personality changes
following brain damage.
h. General Paresis – also called “dementia paralytica”, a syphilitic
infection o f the brain and involving impairment of the CNS.
 Senile and Presenile Dementia
Senile Dementia – mental disorder that
accompanied by brain degeneration due to old age
Presenile dementia – mental disorder associated
with earlier degeneration of the brain.

Mental retardation
Metal retardation is a mental disorder characterized by
sub-average general functioning existing concurrency with
deficits in adaptive behavior. It is a common mental disorder
before the age of 18. The person is suffering from low I.Q.,
difficulty in focusing attention and deficiency in fast learning.
IQ CATEGORY EQUIVALENT CAPACITY
1-25 Idiot A child from 1-3 y
26-50 Imbecile 3 to 6 y/o
51-75 Moron 6 to 8 y/o
76-90 Dull-minded 9 to 11 y/o
91 to 120 Normal (average) 11 to 14 y/o
121-130 Superior Above average capacity
131 to 140 Talented High Development
140 above Genius Very high development

The Intellectual Quotient

IQ 50 to 70 Able to care their selves; could finish basic
Mild education, hold semi-skilled jobs, can be
Retardation married and serve as adequate parents
IQ 35 to 49 Maybe trained to care their selves, reach primary
Moderate level of education, holds menial jobs, often
Retardation sheltered workshops, difficulty in maintaining social
relationships, rarely marry.
IQ 20 to 34 May learn sedimentary language and work skills,
Severe unable to care for themselves
Retardation
IQ20 below Spend their lives in institution that provides
Profound custodial care, not capable of true interaction
Retardation

Four categories of Mental

Retardation
 Schizophrenia and Paranoia
Schizophrenia – refers to the group of psychotic disorders
characterized by gross distortions of realty, withdrawal of social
interaction, disorganization and fragmentation of perception,
thoughts and emotion. It also refers to terms such as “mental
deterioration”, “dementia praecox”, or “split mind”.
- It was first identified by Emil Kraepelin in 1896

Paranoia – it is a psychosis characterized by a

systemized delusional system. A delusion is a firm
belief opposed to reality but maintained in spite of
strong evidence to the contrary. It is also a psychosis
characterized by delusion of apprehension following a
failure or frustration.
Ex. One might thinks he is “James Reid”
 Kinds of Sexual Deviancies
a. Those Affecting Males
•Erectile Insufficiency (Impotency)
•Pre-mature Ejaculation
•Retarded Ejaculation
b. Those Affecting Women
•Arousal Insufficiency (Frigidity) – a sexual disorder characterized by
partial or complete failure to attain the lubrication or swelling response of
sexual excitement by the female partner.
•Orgasmic Dysfunction – a sexual disorder characterized by the difficulty in
achieving orgasm
•Vaginismus – the involuntary spasm of the muscles at the entrance to the
vagina that prevent penetration of the male sex organ.
•Dyspareunia – it is called painful coitus/painful sexual acts in women.
 As Mode of Sexual Expression or
c. Other Sexual behaviors Way of Sexual Satisfaction
leading to Sex Crimes • Oralism
As to Sexual Reversals: •Fellatio
•Homosexuality –It is also called •Cunnilingus
“lesbianism/tribalism” for female •Anilism (anillingus)
relationship. Sado-Masochism (Algolagnic)
•Transvestitism Sadism
•Fetishism Masochism
As to the Choice of Partner As to Part of the Body
•Pedophilia •Sodomy
•Bestiality •Uranism
•Auto-sexual •Frottage
•Gerontophilia •Partialism
•Necrophilia As to visual stimulus
•Incest •Voyeurism
As to Sexual Urge •Scoptophilia
•Satyriasis As to Number of Participants in the
•Nymphomania Sexual Act
•Troilism
•Pluralism
CRISIS MANAGEMENT
Crisis - is any event that is expected to lead
to an unstable and dangerous situation
affecting an individual, group, community or
society.
Crisis Management - is the process by
which an organization deals with a major
event that threatens to harm the
organization or the general public.
3 Elements of Crises Management
1. threat to the organization or public
2. element of surprise
3. short decision time
Hostage Negotiation - a negotiation
conducted between law enforcement
agencies, diplomatic or other
governmental representatives for
the release of a person held hostage
against their will by criminal, terrorist or
other elements.
 Instrumental Demand characteristics best described as “objective”,e.g., money,
transportation,f ood, liquor, drugs.

 Expressive Demand characteristics best described as “subjective”,e.g., perpetrator

wants to talk to family member, perpetrator want to make a statement to the media
regarding delusional beliefs.

 Substantive Victims are threatened to obtain concessions from a third party, the
demands may be instrumental or expressive. Non Substantive Demands are not
made, or, if they are, they are trivial and not related to the reason(s) the victim(s)
are threatened. There are instrumental demands, expressive demands, substantive
demands, and non substantive demands. Basically, the crisis negotiator has
bargaining power only if the perpetrator has substantive demands. Substantive
demands may be either instrumental or expressive.

 Finally, one last way the crisis negotiator can classify thecrisis situation is based
upon understanding hostage taker typology

DEMAND TYPOLOGIES GENERAL

CATEGORY DESCRIPTION
Emotionally Disturbed
Brain Damaged
Elderly/Senile
Depressed
Paranoid
Schizophrenic
Substance Abuser
Family Disputes
Political Extremists
Reluctant Captors
Deliberate Hostage Takers
Religious Fanatics
Criminals – people suffering from Antisocial Personality
Disorder/Trapped Criminal Antisocial Personality Disorder/Kidnapper
Prison Inmates Antisocial Personality Disorder Combination

HOSTAGE TAKER TYPOLOGIES

GENERAL CATEGORY
1. Resolve without further incident.
2. Safety of all participants.
3. Apprehension of all perpetrators.
4. Accomplish the task within the
framework of current community
standards

Objective of Crisis
Management
Theory of Crisis Management
1.Contain and negotiate.
2.Protect the innocent from harm.
3.Allow the passage of time so that the perpetrators
can be reasoned with throughnegotiation.
4.Allow the passage of time so that the response
force can avail of the following: a.Evaluate the
situation;
b.Gather information;
c.Explore alternative, and;
d.Formulate a plan of action.
The 4P Crisis Management Model
1. Prediction-this stage involves foretelling of the
likelihood of crises occurring either natural or man-made
through the continuous assessment of all possible threats
and threat groups as well as the analysis of developing or
reported events and incidents.
2. Prevention-this stage involves the institution of passive
and active security measures, as well as the remedy or
solution of destabilizing factors and/or security flaws
leading to such crisis/emergencies.
3. Preparation- entails planning, organizing, training and
stock piling of equipments and supplies needed for such
crises/emergencies.
4. Performance-which is the actual execution or
implementation of any of contingency plan when a crisis
situation occurs despite the pro-active measures
 Crisis management is continuing activity that has two distinct phases:

 1 . The Proactive Phase - designed to predict or prevent the probability of

occurrence of crises at the same time prepares to handle them when they
occur. It encompasses the first3p’s of the 4p’s Crisis Management Model:
prediction, prevention and preparation.
 2. The Re-active Phase - This phase covers the last of the 4 P’s,
Performance, of Crisis Management Model.
The objectives in this stage are:
1.To ensure a high probability of success in neutralizing the perpetrator(s),
2.To minimize, or cushion the adverse effects of the crisis incident, and
3.To ensure a smooth and speedy rehabilitation or return to normalcy.

Phases of Crisis Management

Five Categories of hostage-Takers
1.Persons in Crisis Are people who take hostages during
a period of prolonged frustration, despair and problem.
2.Psychotics Are mentally-ill people who take hostage
during a period of psychiatric disturbance.
3.Common Criminals Are people who take hostages for
personal, rather than ideological, reasons? 4.Prisoners
Are people who take hostages because of
dissatisfaction and discontent regarding their living
conditions in prison.
5.Political Terrorists Are ideologically-inspired
individuals or groups of people who take hostages
because of political and ideological beliefs
Crisis Management Team
1.The field commander
2.A tactical Officer
3.Negotiator
4.A traffic/patrol supervisor
5.An intelligence/recorder communication
officer
RULES OF ENGAGEMENT
“The PNP Rules of Engagement”
1. There shall be an organized Crisis Management
Task Group in every Region/ Province/ Municipality
trained and ready for deployment anytime.
2. There shall be only one ground commander in the
area.
3. The incident area shall be cordoned.
4. Negotiators shall be designated and no one shall
be allowed to talk to the suspects without clearance
from the negotiating panel/ground commander.
5. Any assault must be well-planned and assaulting
teams alerted for deployment incase the negotiation
fails.
6. An ambulance with medical crew and a fire
truck shall be detailed atthe incidentarea.
7. Proper coordination with all participating
elements shall be done tounify effortsin
solving the crisis.
8.Never dismiss any request from the
hostage-taker as trivial orunimportant.
9.Never say “No.”
10.Soften the demands.
11.Never set a deadline; try not to accept a deadline.
12.Do not make alternate suggestions not agreed
upon in the negotiations.
13.Do not introduce outsiders (non-law enforcement
officers)into the negotiation process unless their
presence is extremely necessary in the solution of the
crisis, and provide they shall be properly advised on
the do’s and don’ts of hostage negotiations.
14.Do not allow any exchange of hostages unless
extremely necessary; in particular do not exchange a
negotiator for a hostage.
15.Avoid negotiating face to face.16.Law enforcement
officers without proper training shall not be allowed to
participate in hostage negotiations
SYNDROMES IN HOSTAGE
NEGOTIATION
1. Stockholm Syndrome – this is a term used to
describe a paradoxical psychological phenomenon
wherein hostages express adulation and have positive
feelings towards their captors that appear in light of the
danger or risk endured by the victims.
Coined by Nils Bejerot
The syndrome is named after the Norrmalmstorg
robbery of Kreditbanken at Norrmalmstorg in
Stockholm, in which the bank robbers held bank
employees for 6 days. The victims became emotionally
attached to their captors and even defended them
after they were freed.
2. Lima syndrome – an inverse of
Stockholm syndrome, in which abductors
develop sympathy for their hostages. It was
named after the abduction at Japanese
Embassy in Lima, Peru in 1996, when
members of a militant movement took
hostage hundred of people. Within a few
hours, the abductors had set free most of
the hostages due to symphaty.
3. London Syndrome – One or more
hostages respond to captors with
belligerence and non-cooperation.
END
When a person is seen to show indiscriminate
giggling or crying, emotional flatness, the
voice is monotonous, the face immobile and
expressionless and manifest highly bizarre
and add behavior then appropriately he is:
suffering from phobic disorder
suffering from bipolar disorder
suffering from schizophrenia
suffering from sexual dysfunctions
What is known to be the oldest but
commonly used terrorist tactic where
target are often police, military officials or
political features?
◦ Hijacking
◦ Assassination
◦ Ambush
◦ Kidnap for Ransom
What do you call the phenomenon where
a hostage begins to identify his captor and
give his sympathy to his own hostage
taker?
◦ Stockholm syndrome
◦ Traumatic syndrome
◦ Withdrawal syndrome
◦ none of these
Science concerned with improving the
quality of human off springs.
 Genetics
 Eugenics
 Criminology
 Heredity
.Criminals who acted under the impulse
of uncontrolled emotion on occasion
during otherwise moral lives.
 seasonal criminals
 criminals of passion
 occasional criminals
 born criminals
An irrational fear which is fixed, intense,
uncontrollable and often has no
reasonable foundation.
 Phobia
 Delusions
 Regression
 Anxiety
The highest ranking field commander
should not also be the chief negotiator
because
a. hostage takers will be afraid
b. he is not authorized to grant
concessions
c .conflict of interest as mediator and
decision maker
d. hostage takers will not trust him
What is the last option in a hostage
situation.
a. Negotiation
b. crowd control
c. assault operation
d. giving in to demands
When a person was subjected to some
shocking experiences leaving him with
painful memories, repressed and can no
longer be recalled, he is suffering from
this disorder,
a. Delusion
b. Amnesia
c. Phobia
d. Dementia praecox
Sexual deviation is attained in this deviant
behavior by watching nude man or
woman.
a. Exhibitionism
b. Transvertism
c. Voyeurism
d. Fetishism
Which of the following is not a factor in
measuring characteristics of criminals?
a. Age
b. Gender
c. Race
d. Height
To help finance terrorist activities,
terrorists raids armored vehicles and
persons carrying large sum of cash. This
method of a terrorist is known as?
A. tax evasion
B. Kidnapping
C. Assassination
D. Robbery/Extortion
It is developed when one or more
terrorists or criminals hold people against
their will and try to hold off the authorities
by force, threatening to kill the hostages if
proved or attacked.
A. Hostage crisis
B. Hostage Negotiation
C. Crisis
D. All of the above
This is a difficult art as it requires
managing, in real time, both the other
person’s mind and your own.
A. Investigation
B. Hostage Assaulting
C. Negotiation
D. Hostage Negotiator