Fire Suppression Without Water

• It explains Carbon dioxide systems, its properties and extinguishing characteristics and
limitations of carbon dioxide and its methods of applications.
• Design considerations and testing and maintenance of carbon dioxide systems.
• Design, system and inspection of both wet and dry chemicals.
• Halon and Halon Replacement Agents and systems for flame suppression purposes.
• Water is most widely and most readily available extinguishing agent. Characteristics and
hazards of water will be discussed further.
 Carbon dioxide Systems and Properties
• Carbon dioxide has been used in fire extinguishing systems for nearly 100 years. The first
systems were installed between 1910-1915 in Europe.
• Carbon dioxide will suppress fire effectively in most combustible materials. Exceptions are
a few active metals and meta hydrides and materials, such as cellulose nitrate, that
contain available oxygen.
• As a gas or as a finely divided solid called “snow” or “dry ice”, it will not conduct electricity,
and , therefore, can be used on energized electrical equipment. It leaves no residue, thus
eliminating clean-up of the agent itself.
• At room temperature and pressure, carbon dioxide is a gas. It is easily liquefied by
compressing and cooling, and, with further compressing and cooling, it can be further
converted to a solid.
• Above the critical temperature of 87.8◦F (31⁰C), irrespective of pressure, it is entirely gas.
Between 87.8⁰F(31⁰C) and the temperature of the triple point, which is 69.9⁰F(-57⁰C), in a
closed container, it is part liquid and part solid.
 Carbon dioxide Systems and Properties
• When the temperature is reduced to -69.9⁰F(-57⁰C) at 75 psi (517 kPa), carbon dioxide
may be present in vapour, liquid and solid form in equilibrium with each other.
• When liquid carbon dioxide is discharged at atmospheric pressure, a portion instantly
flashes to vapour while the remainder is cooled by evaporation and converted to finely
divided snow or dry ice at a temperature nearby -110⁰F(-79⁰C).
• Liquid Carbon dioxide may be stored in high pressure cylinders with storage temperature
varying with ambient temperature or in low- pressure refrigerated containers designed to
maintain a storage temperature of 0⁰F(-18⁰C).
• A typical discharge of liquid carbon dioxide has a white, cloudy appearance due to finely
divided dry ice particles carried along with flash vapour.
• The dry ice particles produced during a discharge of carbon dioxide can carry a charge of
static electricity. To prevent shock hazard to personnel or unwanted static discharge in a
potentially explosive atmosphere, all discharge nozzles must be grounded.
 Carbon dioxide Systems and Properties

• Carbon dioxide has a density of one and half times the density of air at the same
temperature. The cold discharge has a much greater density, which accounts for its ability
to replace air above burning surfaces and maintain a smothering atmosphere when used
in local application systems.
• When carbon dioxide is used for total flooding, the resulting mixture of carbon dioxide
and air will be more dense than the ambient temperature.
• Carbon dioxide is normally present in the atmosphere at a concentration of approximately
0.038 percent. With 17 to 30 percent carbon dioxide in air, a narcotic effect takes over and
stops breathing immediately, even with a sufficient supply of oxygen in the air.
• Six to 7 percent carbon dioxide is considered the threshold level at which harmful effects
become noticeable in human beings.
 Carbon dioxide Extinguishing Properties

Extinguishment by Smothering
• The primary mechanism by which carbon dioxide extinguishes fire is oxygen reduction
(Smothering).
• If the atmosphere that supplies oxygen to the fire is diluted with carbon dioxide vapour,
the rate of heat generation is reduced until it is below the rate of heat loss. When the fuel
is cooled below its ignition temperature, the fire dies out and is extinguished completely.

Extinguishment by Cooling
• The cooling effect of carbon dioxide is most apparent when the agent is discharged
directly on the burning material. A massive application quickly covering the entire surface
smothers the fire and helps cool the fuel.
 Limitations of Carbon Dioxide as Extinguishing Agent

• The use of carbon dioxide on general Class A fires is limited by its relatively low cooling capacity,
compared to that of water, and by enclosures incapable of retaining an extinguishing atmosphere.
• Carbon dioxide is not an effective extinguishing agent for fires involving chemicals that contain their
own oxygen supply, such as cellulose nitrate.
• Fires involving reactive metals, such as sodium, potassium, magnesium, titanium, zirconium, and
the metal hydrates, cannot be extinguished by carbon dioxide because the metals and hydrides
decompose carbon dioxide.
Methods of Applications
• Two basic methods to apply Carbon Dioxide in extinguishing fires
1. First method is to discharge a sufficient amount of the agent into an enclosure to create an
extinguishing atmosphere throughout the enclosed area. This is called “Total Flooding”.
2. Second is to discharge the agent directly onto the burning material without relying on the
enclosure to retain carbon dioxide. This is called “Local Application”.
 Limitations of Carbon Dioxide as Extinguishing Agent

3. Carbon dioxide systems are sometimes used for inerting or purging to prevent fire or
explosion. NFPA 69 (Standard on Explosion Prevention Systems) gives guidance on these
applications. Fire suppression in coal storage silos also can use carbon dioxide vapour.
4. Standpipe systems and Mobile supply are supplied by containers of carbon dioxide
mounted on mobile units that can be moved and quickly connected to a standpipe in
case of fire.
5. Carbon dioxide systems can consist of hand hose lines permanently connected by means
of fixed piping to a fixed supply of carbon dioxide. Such systems are frequently provided
for manual protection of small localised hazards.
 Components of Carbon Dioxide Systems
Carbon Dioxide Storage
• Carbon dioxide may be stored in high and low pressure containers. Because of difference in
pressure, system design is influenced by the storage method.
• High-pressure containers, usually cylinders are designed to store liquid carbon dioxide at
atmospheric temperature.
• Abnormally low storage temperatures adversely affect the rate of discharge. For this reason, NFPA
12 does not permit storage temperatures below 0⁰F(-18⁰C) for total flooding systems and below
32⁰F(0⁰C) for local application systems.
• Low-Pressure storage containers are pressure vessels with a design working pressure of at least 325
psi (2240 kPa). These containers are maintained at a temperature of 0⁰F(-18⁰C) by use of insulation
and mechanical refrigeration.
• Tank pressure is controlled by condensation of carbon dioxide vapour by the coils. In the event of
refrigeration failure, pressure-relief valves bleed of some vapour to keep the pressure within safe
limits.
 Components of Carbon Dioxide Systems
Carbon Dioxide Storage
• High storage containers, usually cylinders, are designed to store liquid carbon dioxide at atmospheric
temperature. Since the maximum pressure in the cylinder or other container is affected by the
ambient temperature, it is important that the container be designed to withstand the maximum
expected pressure.
• Low pressure storage containers are pressure vessels with a design working pressure of at least 325
psi (2240)kPa. These containers are maintained at a temperature of approximately 0⁰F (-18⁰C) by use
of insulation and mechanical refrigeration.
Piping System
• Piping systems, normally empty, convey carbon dioxide from the storage container to open nozzles
where there is a fire.
• Minimum pressure of the pipeline must be kept well below the triple point pressure of 75psia (5.2
bars). If the pressure of the flowing carbon dioxide falls below the triple point pressure, dry ice will
form in the pipe and block orifices in the discharge nozzles, thus stopping the flow of carbon dioxide.
 Components of Carbon Dioxide Systems
Valves and Operating Devices
• Valves for controlling the discharge of carbon dioxide must withstand the maximum
operating pressure, be absolutely bulb tight when closed, and be capable of both manual
and automatic operation.

Discharge Nozzles
• Nozzles used in total flooding simply may be orifices producing high-velocity jet streams, or
they may be partially shielded to achieve reduced velocity or a specific discharge pattern.
• High velocity types provide substantial mixing to ensure uniform concentration of carbon
dioxide through out an enclosure.
• Low velocity types have a tendency to create high concentrations in the lower levels, which
may be desirable under certain conditions.
 Testing and Maintaining Carbon Dioxide Systems

Acceptance Testing
NFPA 12 requires a “full discharge test” of newly installed systems. The final proof of
performance is to discharge the system and, for total flooding hazards, to measure the
concentrations of carbon dioxide and the holding time in the fire zone.
Inspections
To maintain a system in proper operating conditions it is essential to conduct periodic
inspections. At least once a month, the system must be inspected to verify its operational
status.
Maintenance
All operating devices should be tested annually. Although much of this testing can be
accomplished without discharging the system, a partial discharge may be necessary in some
cases. Any required maintenance found by testing should be performed without any delay.
 Chemical Extinguishing Agents and Application Systems

Dry Chemical Physical Properties

• The principal base chemicals used in the production of currently dry chemical extinguishing agents
are sodium bicarbonate, potassium chloride, urea potassium bicarbonate, and mono-ammonium
phosphate.
• Sodium bicarbonate is an odourless white crystalline powder that decomposes at 140⁰F (60⁰C), has a
pH ranging from 8.3 to 8.6, is partly soluble in water and is the mildest of all sodium alkalis.
• Potassium bicarbonate is an odourless white powder that decomposes at 248⁰F (120⁰C), has a pH in
range of 8.4, and is not soluble in water.
• Potassium Chloride is an odourless white crystal with a melting point of 1422⁰F (772⁰C), has a pH of 7,
and is completely soluble in water.
• Mono-ammonium phosphate is a white crystal solid with a slight odour of ammonia. It has a melting
point of 350⁰F (190⁰C) and is slightly soluble in water. As an extinguishing agent, it may have an off-
white or yellow colour.
 Chemical Extinguishing Agents and Application Systems

Toxicity
• Dry extinguishing chemical agents are stable at both low and normal temperatures and are considered
to be non toxic. However, other physiological conditions such as minor skin and respiratory irritations
may occur on exposure to the agents.
Particle Size
• Particles of dry chemical range is size from less than 10 microns up to 75 microns (1 micron =0.000029
in.)
Extinguishing Properties
• Smothering, cooling and radiation shielding contribute to the extinguishing efficiency of dry chemicals.
• Cooling action of the dry chemical cannot be substantiated as an important reason fot its ability to
promptly extinguish fires. To be effective, any dry chemical must be heat sensitive and, as such, absorb
heat in order to become chemically active.
 Chemical Extinguishing Agents and Application Systems
• Radiation Shielding
Discharge of dry chemicals produces a cloud of powder between the flame and the fuel; this
cloud shields the fuel from some of the heat radiated by the flame.
• Smothering Action
For special applications, such as kitchen range, hood, duct and fryer fire protection, the
extinguishing mechanism for dry chemical is based on the process of saponification.
Saponification is the process of chemically converting the fatty acid contained in the cooking
medium to soap, or foam, and it accomplishes extinguishment by forming a surface coating that
smoothers the fire.
• Chain-Breaking Reaction
The discharge of dry chemical into the flame prevents reactive particles from coming together
and continuing the combustion chain reaction. The explanation is referred to as the chain-
breaking mechanism of extinguishment.
 Chemical Extinguishing Agents and Application Systems

Uses and Limitations of Dry Chemical Systems

• Due to the rapidity with which dry chemical extinguishes flame, dry chemical is used on surface fires
involving ordinary combustible materials (Class A Fires).
• There are several areas in the textile industry, notably opener-picker rooms and carding rooms in cotton
mills, where regular dry chemical has been used effectively.
• Multipurpose dry chemicals becomes sticky when heated, it is not recommended for textile card rooms
or other locations where removal of the residue from fine machine parts may be difficult.
• Dry chemicals should not be used in installations where relays and delicate electrical contacts are
located, as the insulating properties of dry chemical might render such equipment inoperative.
• Dry chemical extinguishing systems can be used in those situations where quick extinguishment is
desired and where re-ignition sources are not present.
• Regular dry chemical will not extinguish fires that penetrate beneath the surface or fires in materials
that supply their own oxygen for combustion.
 Chemical Extinguishing Agents and Application Systems

Method of Application
Fixed systems are of two types:
1. Total Flooding
2. Hand Hose line/ Local Application

• In total flooding applications, a predetermined amount of dry chemical is discharged

through fixed piping and nozzles into an enclosed space or enclosure around the hazard.
• Hand hose line systems containing regular or ordinary dry chemical have been used to a
limited extent for quick spreading surface fires on ordinary combustible material.
 Chemical Extinguishing Agents and Application Systems

Wet Chemical Extinguishing Agents

• Wet chemical fire extinguishing agents consist of organic or in organic salts mixed with water to
form an alkaline solution that is capable of being discharged through piping or tubing when
under expellant gas pressure.
Physical Properties
• Wet chemical agents are typically a proprietary mixture consisting of potassium carbonate,
potassium acetate, potassium citrate, or a combination, mixed in water and other additives
such as phenolphthalein, phosphoric acid, and/or dyes. As they are already liquid in character,
wet chemical agents do not require additives to enhance flow.
• Compatibility
Wet chemicals are incompatible with any reactive metals, electrically energized equipment, lime
dust (CaO), chlorine triflouride (CIF3), or any other material that is reactive with water.
 Chemical Extinguishing Agents and Application Systems

Wet Chemical Extinguishing Agents

Smothering Actions
When wet chemical agent is applied to flammable liquid surfaces, the result is a rapid
knockdown of flame and a spreading foam on the fuel surface. This vapour suppressing foam
barrier extinguishes the flame by separating the liquid fuel and oxygen.

Cooling Action
The effect of water vaporization by wet agents provides a cooling effect on the fuel. The
applications of the wet chemical solution and the resulting formation of foam on the surface
of the fuel also provides a cooling effect, lowering the temperature of the flammable fuel,
further decreasing flammable vapour release.
 Chemical Extinguishing Agents and Application Systems

Methods of Applications of Wet Chemical Extinguishing Agents

• Wet chemical is applied through fixed systems, but also may be applied in portable fire
extinguishers that are used to provide additional support to the extinguishing system.
• The agent is delivered through piping to specially designed nozzles that atomize the
solution and distribute the agent over the hazard area.
• Local application systems are practical in those situations where the hazard can be isolated
from other hazards so that fire will not spread beyond the protected area, and where the
entire hazard can be protected.
 Chemical Extinguishing Agents and Application Systems

Inspection, Testing and Maintenance Procedures

Owners of chemical extinguishment systems should conduct monthly inspections to determine
whether the system is in proper operating conditions. This inspection is not intended to be detailed,
but is rather a visual check for the system and should include determination of following terms
• The extinguishing system is in its proper location.
• The manual actuators are unobstructed.
• The tamper indicators and seals are intact.
• The maintenance tag or certificate is in place.
• There is no obvious physical damage or condition that might prevent operation.
• There is no damage to, or obstruction of, fusible links or actuating devices.
• The pressure gauge, if provided, are in operable range.
 Chemical Extinguishing Agents and Application Systems

Inspection, Testing and Maintenance Procedures

• The nozzle blow-off caps are intact and undamaged.

• The hood, duct, and protected cooking appliances have not been replaced, modified or
relocated.
Testing of wet chemical systems includes the operation of the detection system signals and
releasing devices, including manual stations and other associated equipment. However, a
discharge of the wet chemical normally is not part of this test.
The distribution piping should be checked for obstructions during this procedure. If the
system is small and accessible, the piping can be dismantled and inspected visually. If this is
not practical, then purging with nitrogen or compressed air may be done.