Ray F. Evert • Susan E.

Eichhorn

Raven Biology of Plants

Eighth Edition

CHAPTER 23
Cells and Tissues of the Plant Body
Lecture presentation by Dr. Mohammad Brake
Jerash University

© 2013 W. H. Freeman and Company

CHAPTER OUTLINE
Apical Meristems and Their Derivatives
Growth, Morphogenesis, and Differentiation.
Internal Organization of the Plant Body
Ground Tissues
Vascular Tissues
Dermal Tissues
Embryogenesis: development of embryo from a fertilized egg or zygote.
During embryogenesis, shoot apical meristim at one end and a root
apical meristem will form.
Embryogenesis is the beginning of development of the plant body and
most of the development occurs after embryogenesis through the activity
of meristem cells.
Meristem cells are embryonic tissue regions, primarily concerned with
formation of new cells.
Apical meristem and their derivatives:
Apical meristems are found in the tips of root and shoot
The meristem regions composed of initial cells.
Initial cells are: cells that remain in meristem and adds cells to the plant
body by division.
Initial divide in such a way that one of the sister cells remains in the
meristem as an initials while the other becomes a new body cell or
derivative.
Derivative: divide several times near the tips before differentiation.
Division occurs also in primary meristem tissues (protoderm,
procambium, and ground meristem) and the result of the division of the
primary meristematic tissues is called primary growth and the tissues
resulted are called primary plant body.
The existence of meristems, underlies on the principles differences
between plants and animals? How
Animals form all of their organs early in life and stop growing at maturity,
while plants form new organs and continue to grow during their entire life
Indeterminate: unlimited growth of the apical meristem.
Growth in plants is resembled to motility in animals.
Growth, morphogenesis and differentiation:
Development: the sum total of events that progressively involves three
overlapping processes: growth, morphogenesis and differentiation.
Development occurs in response to genetic information inherited from
parents.
A part of the development pathway is determined by environmental
factors such as day length, light quality and quantity.
Growth: an irreversible increase in size.
Growth means:
1) Cell division
2) Cell enlargement
Morphogenesis: the development of form
During development, a plant assumes a particular shape or form.
The plane of division is an important factor for determining the
morphology of a plant or a plant part.
Differentiation: the process by which cells with identical genetic information
becomes different.
Cellular differentiation depends on the control of gene expression.
Different types of cells synthesize different proteins because they express
certain sets of genes not expressed by other types of cells, example:
1. Fiber: during development make enzymes that produce lignin (rigid cell wall).
2. Collenchymas: during development make enzymes that produce pectin
(flexible cell wall).
Internal organization of the plant body:
In plant body cells are associated in tissues and the tissues are grouped
together into tissue system.
There are three tissue systems, and their presence in root, shoot, and leaf
reveals both similarity and continuity of the plant body.
The three tissue systems are:
1) Ground or fundamental tissue system: consists of three ground tissues:
•Parenchyma, most common
•Collecnchyma
•Sclernchyma
2) Vascular tissue system: consists of xylem and phloem
3) Dermal tissue system: represented by epidermis (outer protective covering
of the primary plant body).
The distribution of the various tissues depends on the plant part or plant
taxon or both.
The principle differences depend on the relative distribution of the
vascular and ground tissues.
•Leaf: vascular system forms vascular bundles embedded in
photosynthetic ground tissue (mesophyll).
•Stem: vascular system form a system of interconnected strands
embedded within the ground tissue.
•Roots: vascular system forms a solid cylinder surrounding by cortex.
There are two types of tissues:
1. Simple tissues: composed of only one type of cells (parenchyma
tissues).
2. Complex tissues: composed of two or more types of cells like xylem
(4 types of cells).
Ground tissues:
Parenchyma tissues are involved in photosynthesis, storage, secretion.
Parenchyma cells occur in:
•Cortex (stem, and root)
•Pith (stem, and root)
•Mesophyll (leaf)
•Flesh of fruits
•As vertical strands in vascular system
•As horizontal rays in secondary vascular tissues
Characteristics of parenchyma cells are:
•Living at maturity
•Able to divide
•Primary cell wall
•Adventitious structures arise from parenchyma cells
Functions of parenchyma cells are:
•Photosynthesis
•Storage
•Secretion
•Movement of water and the transport of food in plants
Transfer cells are parenchyma cells with wall ingrowths
Transfer cells are specialized parenchyma cells with wall ingrowths that
increase the surface area of the plasma membrane, apparently functions in the
short-distance transfer of solutes.
Transfer cells occur in association with xylem and phloem in general.
Collenchyma tissue supports young, growing organs
Living cell at maturity
Occurs in:
•Discrete strands or as continuous cylinders beneath the epidermis in stem
and petioles.
•Bordering the veins in dicot leaves.
Elongated cells
Unevenly thickened, non lignified primary wall
Continue to develop thick, flexible walls while elongating making these cells
adapted for the support of young, growing organs.
Sclerenchyma tissues strengthen and support plant parts no longer
elongating
Founds as:
Continuous mass
Small group of cells
Single cell among other cells
Found in all plant body
Died at maturity
Have thick, lignified cell wall
Strengthen and support plant parts no longer elongating
Types of sclerenchyma:
1) Fibers:
Long, slender cells
Occurs in strands or bundles
Vary in length (5-55mm like in hemp, 9-70mm like in flax, and .8-6mm in
jute).
2) Sclereids:
Short cells
Variable in shape and are often branched
Occurs single or aggregates in ground tissue
Found in seed coats, nut,…
Vascular tissues:
Xylem is the principle water conducting tissues in vascular plants
Xylem functions:
1. Conducting water
2. Conducting minerals
3. Support
4. Food storage
In primary plant body, xylem derived from procambium.
In secondary plant body, xylem derived from vascular cambium.
The principle conducting cells of the xylem are the tracheary elements, of which
there are two types:
1) Tracheid elements:
Elongated cells (more than the vessels) that have secondary wall and lack
protoplast at maturity, and may have pits in their walls
Lack perforations
Less specialized than vessels
Found in seedless vascular plant, gymnospers, and angiosperms
2) Vessel elements:
Elongated cells that have secondary wall and lack protoplast at maturity and may
have pits in their walls
Have perforation (areas lacking both primary and secondary walls), perforation
occurs on the end walls, with the vessel elements joined end-to-end forming long,
continuous columns called vessels.
Vessels are generally more efficient conductors of water than tracheids?
Water flow from vessel elements to another through perforation without
problems
Water flow from tracheid to tracheid through pits
Pits offers:
1. Little resistance to the flow of water
2. Block air bubbles
Air bubbles which form during the alternate freezing and thawing of xylem
water in the spring are:
1. Restricted to that tracheid: the water flow continue
2. In vessels block the flow of water in the entire length of the vessel.
Wide vessels are more efficient at water conduction than narrow vessels.
The primary xylem has tracheary elements with a variety of secondary wall
thickenings:
1. Ring
2. Spiral
During the primary growth, the vessels and tracheids, could be extend after
differentiation.
At the end of elongation, xylem cells will be destroyed.
During the secondary growth, the secondary wall covers the tracheid and the
vessel elements except the pit membrane and at perforations.
In addition to tracheids and vessel elements the xylem tissue contains:
1) Parenchyma cells: store various substances, occurs in vertical strands, and
in secondary xylem occurs as rays.
2) Fibers: some of which are living at maturity and serve a dual functions of
storage and support.
Phloem is the principle food-conducting tissue in vascular plants
Phloem transport sugar, amino acids, lipids, micronutrients, hormones, floral
stimulus, proteins, RNA, signaling molecules, and plant tissues.
Long distance signaling occurs through phloem.
The phloem may be:
1. Primary phloem developed from procambium
2. Secondary phloem developed from vascular cambium
Phloem composed of:
1. Sieve elements
2. Companion cells
3. Parenchyma cells: storage
4. fibers
sieve elements contain pores at the ends and the area containing pores
called sieve area, through which the protoplast of adjacent sieve elements
are interconnected.
The sieve elements are different types:
1. sieve cells: found in gymnosperms
2. sieve tubes: found only in angiospeerms
3. sieve elements: found in seedless vascular plants
Sieve cells have:
1. narrow sieve area pors
2. uniform sieve area
3. most of sieve areas are present at the ends of sieve cells
Sieve tubes have:
1. Sieve areas on some walls have larger pore than those on other walls of
the same cells, the part of the wall bearing the sieve areas with larger
pores is called sieve plate.
2. Sieve plate may occur on any wall, but they are generally located on the
end walls.
3. Sieve tube elements occur end-on-end to form sieve tube.
The most differences between sieve cells and sieve tubes are that sieve
tubes have sieve plates while sieve cells not.
The walls of sieve elements are described as primary and the sieve areas
and sieve plates are generally blocked by polysaccharides called callose
which deposited in response to wounding.
Sieve elements have living protoplast at maturity?
During the differentiation of sieve elements many changes occurs:
1. Break-down of nucleus and tonoplast
2. Formation of sieve areas
3. Loss of ribosome, Golgi apparatus, and cytoskeleton
4. Remaining of plasma membrane, smooth endoplasmic reticulum, some
plastids, and mitochondria.
In tracheary elements protoplast undergoes programmed cell death while in
sieve elements protoplast undergoes selective breakdown.
For the sieve elements to perform its role as food conducting conduit, it must
remain alive.
The protoplasts of the sieve-tube elements of angiosperms, with exception of
some monocots, are characterized by the presence of a protein called
phloem-protein or P-protein near to sieve plates.
The function of P-protein has not been determined, but some botanists belive
that together with callose, P-protein serves to seal the sieve plate pores at the
time of wounding preventing the losss of content.
Sieve-tube elements are associated with specialized parenchyma cells called
companion cells (living plant cells, have nucleus).
Sieve-tube elements and companion cells are:
1. Derived from the same mother cell
2. Closely related developed
3. Have numerous cytoplasmic connections with one another:
•Pores from the sieve-tube side
•Plasmodesmatal connection from the companion side
The companion cells play role in the delivery of substances like proteins,
ATP (necessary for the maintenance of the sieve-tube element).
The companion cells represent the life-support system for the sieve-tube
elements.
In gymnosperms, the sieve cells are associated with specialized
parenchyma cells called albuminous cells.
albuminous cells:
1. Living cells
2. Have nucleus
3. Not derived from the same mother cell as their associated sieve cells
4. Have the same role as companion cell
Both albuminous and companion cells die where their associated sieve
elements die.
Dermal tissues:
The epidermis is the outermost cell layer of the primary plant body.
The epidermis is the dermal tissue system of all plant parts until they undergo
secondary growth.
The epidermis has different types of cells:
1. Unspecialized cells (form the bulk of the epidermis)
2. Guard cells
3. Trichomes
4. Other kinds of specialized cells
The epidermis cells are compactly arranged to provide mechanical protection
to the plant part.
The walls of the epidermal cells of the aerial parts are covered with cuticle
(cutin and wax).
Epidermal cells lack chloroplast
Guard cells:
1. Have chloroplast
2. Regulate the opening and closing of stomata, which mean control the
movement of gases including water, into and out of the green plant parts.
Stomata founds in:
1. Leaves
2. Green stems
3. Green fruits
Guard cells are often associated with epidermal cells that differ in shape from
the ordinary epidermal cells (called subsidiary cells).
Trichomes functions are:
1. Root hair facilities the absorption of water and mineral from the soil.
2. Increased reflection of solar radiation in arid conditions and lower leaf
temperature and lower rates of water loss.
3. Absorption of water and mineral for air plants
4. Secrete salty solution from leaf tissue in salty condition
5. Defines against insects
Periderm is a secondary protective tissue:
Periderm replaces the epidermis in stem and roots that undergo secondary
growth.
The cells of periderm are generally arranged compactly except in the lenticels
(loosely arranged and provide for aeration of the internal tissues of roots and
stems).
The periderm composed of:
Phellem or cork:
1. Non living cells
2. Heavily subrized at maturity
3. Found in the outer part of cork cambium
Pellogen or cork cambium: livin g cells
Phelloderm: living parenchyma cells and found in the inner part of cork
cambium.
The End