Measurement and

Instrumentation
Lect 1
BSME Fall 2019 5th semester
Pakistan Institute of Engineering and Applied Sciences Nilore Islamabad

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Lecture outline
• Introduction
• Process of Measurement
• Significance of Measurement
• Methods of Measurement
• Generalized Measuring System
• Types of Input Quantities
• Calibration
• Uncertainity

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Introduction

• Whatever exists, exists in some amount

• The determination of the amount of some quantity is measurement

• If quantities to be measured relates to mechanical engineering

e.g strain, force, pressure, temperature and flow etc.

• It will constitute subject of Mechanical Measurements

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Process of Measurement
• The word measurand is used to designate the particular physical
parameter being observed and quantified
• It is input quantity to the measuring process
• The process of measurement consists of obtaining a quantitative
comparison between a predefined standard and a measurand
• The act of measurement produces a result
• Standard is usually defined by a legal or recognized agency or
organization e.g NIST, NBS, ISO and ANSI etc.

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Process of Measurement

• It is often convenient or necessary to change, or transduce, a

mechanical measurand into a corresponding electrical quantity

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Significance of Measurement

• quantitative information on the actual state of physical variables

• understanding of the physical world

• ultimate test of any theory or design

• fundamental basis for all research, design, and development

• fundamental element of any control process

• monitering of processes for optimized performance

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Methods of Measurement
Direct comparison
• Comparison is made with either with primary or secondary standard
• Length of a bar is measured by comparing its length with steel tape
with a precision of about 1 mm
• Steel tape is secondary standard while primary standard is related to
speed of light
• It is less common than measurement by indirect comparison

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Methods of Measurement
Indirect comparison
• It makes use of some form of transducing device coupled to a chain of
connecting apparatus called measuring system
• Measurement system converts the basic form of input into an
analogous form, which it then processes and presents at the output
as a known function of the original input
• Assistance is required from a system that senses, converts and finally
presents an analogous output in the form of a displacement on a
scale or chart or as a digital readout

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Generalized Measuring System

• Most measuring systems fall within the framework of a general

arrangement consisting of three phases or stages

• Stage 1: A detection-transduction, or sensor-transducer stage

• Stage 2: An intermediate stage or signal-conditioning stage

• Stage 3: A terminating or readout-recording stage

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Generalized Measuring System
Sensor Transducer Stage
• The primary function of the first stage is lo detect or to sense the
measurand
• Ideally this stage should be insensitive to every other possible input
• Unwanted sensitivity is a measuring error called noise when it varies
rapidly and drift when it varies very slowly
• Frequently there is more than a single transduction in the first stage
particularly if the first stage output is electrical

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Generalized Measuring System
Signal conditioning stage
• The purpose of the second stage of the general system is to modify
the transduced information so that it is acceptable to the third stage
• It may perform one or more basic operations, such as selective
filtering to remove noise, integration, differentiation and telemetering
• Most common function of the second stage is to increase either
amplitude or power of the signal or both to the level required to drive
the final terminating device

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Generalized Measuring System
Readout recording stage
• It provides the information sought in a form comprehensible to one
of the human senses or to a controller
• If the output is intended for immediate human recognition then it
may take one of the following forms
• As a relative displacement such as movement of an indicating hand or
displacement of oscilloscope trace
• In digital form as presented by a counter such as an automobile odometer or
by liquid crystal display (LCD) or light emitting diode (LED) display as on a
digital voltmeter

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Generalized Measuring System

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Measuring System Example

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Measuring System Example

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Types of Input Quantities
Time Dependence
• Static-constant in time
• Dynamic-varying in time
(a) Steady-state periodic
(b) Nonrepetitive or transient
i. Single pulse or aperiodic
ii. Continuing or random

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Types of Input Quantities
Analog and digital signals
• Most measurands of interest vary with time in a continuous manner
over a range of magnitudes e.g speed of automobile
• An analog signal has a value at every instant in time and it usually
varies smoothly in magnitude
• Digital quantities change in a stepwise manner between two distinct
magnitudes e.g shaft revolution counter with cam actuated switch
• A digital signal is a set of discrete numbers each corresponding to the
value of the analog signal at a single specific instant of time

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Calibration
• Known magnitudes of the input quantity must be fed into the sensor-
transducer and the system's output behavior must be observed
• Such a comparison allows the magnitude of the output to be correctly
interpreted in terms of the magnitude of the input
• This calibration procedure establishes the correct output scale for the
measuring system
• By performing such a test on an instrument we both calibrate its scale
and prove its ability to measure reliably

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Calibration
• If the output is exactly proportional to the input then a single
simultaneous observation of input and output will suffice to fix the
constant of proportionality called single point calibration
• More often multipoint calibrations are used wherein a number of
different input values are applied
• Multipoint calibration works when the output is not simply
proportional and more generally improves the accuracy of the
calibration

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Uncertainty
• Error may be defined as the difference between the measured result
and the true value of the quantity being measured
• If we estimate a likely upper bound on the magnitude of the error
that bound is called the uncertainty
• To estimate the size of errors we must have some understanding of
their causes and classifications
• Error Types: bias, or systematic error and precision or random error

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