Why Separations are needed?

i) Separation of valuable chemicals

from mixtures;
ii) Removal of impurities from
raw materials specially in the ores
and agro-based raw materials;
iii) Purification of products and quality
enhancement;

UNIT OPERATIONS OF
CHEMICAL ENGINEERING,
7TH EDITION,
MCCABE, SMITH, HARRIOTT
Separation in
Human Life

10/31/19 2
 Classification of separation process on the bases of
separating agent
1. ) Mechanical Processes
• An operation in which the components of a mixture are
separated mechanically or on the bases mechanical
characteristics into two or more individual components
• Mechanical Separations are applicable to heterogeneous
mixtures, not to homogenous solutions. The techniques
are based on the physical differences b/w the particles
such as size, shape or density.
2. )Physical Processes
 Separation based on physical properties on the
individual components (e.g. distillation, absorption,
adsorption, leaching and solvent extraction)
a) Without involving thermal processes
b) Involving thermal processes
10/31/19 3
3. ) Chemical Separation processes
 A phenomenon of separation of the constituent/s due to chemical
reaction/s
 Reactions may involve energy (i.e. Exothermal / Endodermal)

4. ) Thermodynamic separation processes:

  by utilizing thermodynamic properties,
 Either increase or decrease of total entropy of individual
components.
 ∑ Entropy of each component.

10/31/19 4
 5.) Novel Techniques for Separation for process intensification,
energy conservation or quality improvement.
• Engineers innovate by conducting research to innovate compact, safe,
energy-efficient, and environment-friendly sustainable processes .

Dialysis , Electro Dialysis , Osmosis, Reverse osmosis, Ultrafiltration, Pressure swing

process, Membrane technology, molecular sieves and
Chromatographic separation technology.

What is the difference between osmosis and reverse osmosis?

Ans.: In osmosis, water moves from solvent to salt side. In reverse osmosis, water is
forced out of solute side by applying pressure.

10/31/19 5
 Assignment # 3

Q. No. 1:  Working principals, application in chemical industries of the fallowing novel separation 
processes,
 “Dialysis , Electro Dialysis , Osmosis, Reverse osmosis, Ultrafiltration, Pressure swing process,
membrane technology, molecular sieves and Chromatographic separation technology.”

Q. No. 2: 
i. Discuss the importance and significance of the given mechanical separation 
techniques with reference to specific chemicals/process industries. 
ii. How can mechanical separation-oriented characterization be attributed for 
quality management and production cost reduction ? 
“Screening, Filtration, Flotation and Sedimentation, Clarification, Centrifugal separations,
Jigging, magnetic and electrostatic separations, Sonic processes, Agglomeration/ clustering”

10/31/19 6
 Mechanical separation processes

Introduction
Mechanical separation for heterogeneous mixtures include separation of solid from gases, liquids and solids.

Separations are extremely important in chemical

manufacturing,
Separation is divided into 2 basic classes,
i. Diffusional separation, that involves the transfer of
material between phases.
ii. Mechanical Separations (main preview of P.T.)
 Separation processes
Mechanical separation processes
Techniques of separation are based on physical properties of the particles e.g. size, shape,
viscosity and density of each component.

 Mechanical processes includes –

 Screening, Filtration, Flotation, and Sedimentation Clarification, Centrifugal separations, Jigging, magnetic
and electrostatic separations, Sonic processes, Agglomeration/ clustering
2 general methods
◦ Using any separating Agent: The use of screen, septum or porous membrane or
utilizing of difference of density e.g. sedimentation, solubility, wettability,
which retain one component and allows other to pass.
◦ Using specific property as an Agent electrical or magnetic characteristics or any other
properties
Particle Separation
Characteristic
Particle Separation Unit Operation
Characteristic
Electric conductivity Electric Separation
 Screening or Mechanical screening
Screening is the practice of taking granulated ore material and separating it into
multiple grades on the bases of particle size.
Efficient screening of particulate matter have wider Industrial application e.g.
cement, ceramic, mining and mineral processing, agriculture, pharmaceutical,
food, plastics, and recycling.
Screening & processing equipments,
Comparison of ideal and actual screen,
Screen Capacity,
Material balance over screen,
Particle Separation Characteristic
Density
 Mechanical separation
This  technique  is  based  upon  the  physical  properties  of  particles  such  as  size, 
shape and density. 
Two general methods in mechanical separations are,
Use of screen (Aim of this Chapter) or porous membrane
Utilization of differences between sedimentation rates
SCREENING MACHINES
During particle separation in most of the screens, particles drop
through the screen under the effect of gravity,
 in a few designs they are pushed or forced through the screen by
centrifugal force.
Coarse particles passes through the openings easily,
Fine particles need agitation, vibration, shaking, gyrated, rotation,
or any other mechanical aid,
 Hybridization with magnetic / electrical force.
 Classification of Screening
Machines
Screening machines may be classified as under,
 Stationary screens and Grizzlies,
 Gyrating screens,
 Vibrating Screens,
Revolving Screens,
Shaking Screens,
Oscillating Screens
 a ) Gyrations in horizontal plane b) Gyrations in vertical
plane
c) Gyrations at one end, shaking at other d) Shaking
e) Mechanically vibrated f) Electrically vibrated.

10/31/19 16
 Stationary screens and Grizzlies
• A grizzly is a grid parallel metallic bars fixed in a stationary
frame.
• The slope and the path of the material are usually are
parallel to the bars,
• Space between the bars is 2 to 8 inch (50 to 200 mm )
• Suitable for very coarse feed, as from primary crusher,
directly falls on upper end of the grid,
• More effective for free flowing solids having few fine
particles.

10/31/19 17
 Single stage
Grizzlies: Grizzlies
 Consist of a set of parallel bars held apart
by spacers, having predetermined opening.
The slope and path of the material is
usually parallel to the length of the bars.
 Suitable for coarse feed falls on the upper
end of the grid.
Large chunks roll and slide to the tails Multi-stage
discharge, small lumps falls through to a Grizzlies
separate collector.
Bars are made of manganese steel to
reduce wear, with spacing 2 to 8 inch.
Good with coarse, free flowing particles
containing only small amount of fines.
 Industrial screens is made of woven, wire,
silk' or plastic cloth, metal bars, perforated
or slotted metal that are wedge- shaped in
cross section

10/31/19 19
 Gyrating Screens:
 Gyrating means move or cause to move rapidly
in a circle or spiral,
Mainly consist of a set of screens that are
stacked one upon the other ( largest screen at the
top and smallest is at the bottom)
 Whole assembly is inclined at an adjustable
angle 16 to 30 degree along the horizontal axis.
 Feed is introduced at the top screen to separate
different fractions, undersize, or fines, pass
through the screen openings. A single screen can
separate into two fractions,
Casing and screen are gyrated in a vertical plane
about a horizontal axis,
 Mechanical Details of Gyrating Screens
 Gyrating Screens has an eccentric drive or weights that causes the shaker to
move in an orbital path and designed for the highest attainable quality at the
cost of a reduced feed rate.
 The material rolls over the screen & falls with the induction of gravity and
directional shifts.
 Rubber balls and trays provide an additional mechanical means to cause the
material to fall through.
 The balls also provide a throwing action for the material to find an open slot to
fall through.
 The shaker is set a shallow angle relative to the horizontal level plane. Usually,
no more than 2 to 5 degrees along the horizontal plane.
 These types of shakers are used for clean feeds i.e. final product will not
contain any oversize or any contamination.

10/31/19 21
Gyrating Screens:
600-1800 rev/min, and screen dimensions
are 1.5 by 4 ft or 5 by 14 ft.
Between the screens, sometimes rubber
balls are also used, that are held in separate
compartment.
As the machine moves, the balls tend to free
the blocked surfaces by striking them.
Screen being plugged by the presence of
solid particles is said to be blinded. 
 Revolving Screens/ Drum/Trammel:
Trammel screens consist up of cylindrical frame
surrounded by wire cloth or perforated plate,
open at both ends,
 Drum rotates at a slight angle with screen
panels around the diameter of the drum,
 Low efficiency and capacity.
The feed remains at the bottom of the drum and
as the drum rotates that keeps the screen clean.
 Oversized product moves towards end of the
drum, while the undersized filter through the
screen into a casing set below.
Constructional details of Revolving
screens

Revolving screens
Separator
Mechanically Shaking Screens:

Consist of rectangular frame which

holds wire, cloth or perforated plate,
 Slightly inclined and suspended by
loose rods or cables.
 Frame may be vibrated electrically or
mechanically.
The frame reciprocate between 2
adjustable positions by high speed
eccentrics .
Mechanical vibrations are transmitted
to the casing then to screens.
 Screens can be directly vibrated
electrically via an heavy-duty solenoid
 Vibrating Screens
High efficiency, high capacity equipment used for very
large particles, sizes that range from pebble size materials,
 Materials are directly delivered on the screen from the
crushers (cone crusher, jaw crusher, or hammer mill),
To facilitate washing of materials, water spray system can
be designed i.e. wet screening process.
Low maintenance cost,
Accuracy of sizing,
Less space to install is required.
 NOISE and DUST are 2 primary Safety considerations
which are harder to deal because of the nature.
  Adequate devices for both dust and hearing protection
should be provided.
 Effectiveness of screens (screen efficiency)
and related calculation.
• Screening is a method of separating particles according to size alone screens
• Widely used on a large/industrial scale separation of particles according to
the sizes,
• The effectiveness of a screen is a measure of accuracy of a screen that how
close separation between undersize & oversize materials occurs,

• Effectiveness of screens i.e. classification of materials carried outsize

fraction, The method is applicable for particles of smaller size,

10/31/19 27
Screening
An Ideal screening would sharply separate the feed mix in
such a way that the smallest particle in the overflow would
be just larger than larger particle in the underflow.
 Ideal separation defines a cut diameter (Dpc), that marks
the point of separation between overpass and underpass
fractions and should be equal to aperture size of the screen.
  An ideal velocity of particles through the screen should
be in the range of 0.6 to. 0.9 m/s.
  Actual screen don’t perform a perfect separation about
the cut diameter.
Ideal vs actual screening

In actual practice exact separation can be achieved up to some extent only in
case of particles that are spherical in shape for a specific (Dpc or screen
opening)
Otherwise inaccuracy may be observed in the adjacent sieves, because of
variation in shape of particles,
 Needlelike or fibrous materials tend to form clusters of different sized
particles. To achieve optimum particle size separation for a wide range of feed
rates, high performance and self-cleaning separators are req
uired.
 Ideal Screening Measures
• An ideal screen sharply separates the feed in such a way
that the smallest particle in the overflow is just larger than
the largest particle in the underflow.
• Such an ideal separation would define a cut diameter, Dpc,
representing the point of separation between the fractions.
• For an ideal operation, a plot of screen opening against
cumulative fraction retained would have the standard
shape .
• As can be seen, the largest particle of the underflow has
the same size as the smallest particle of the overflow.

10/31/19 30
• It has been observed that the overlap is smaller when
particles are spherical (or close to a spherical shape) and is
larger when particles are needle-like, fibrous or tend to
agglomerate.
• The main problems encountered in screen separation is
stickiness, sieve blockage, and agglomeration.
• All these problems increase exponentially as the screen
aperture decreases

10/31/19 31
 DESIGN OF SCREENS FOR SEPARATION OF PARTICULATE
MATERIALS
The objective of a screening operation is to separate a feed stream into two
fractions, an underflow that is passed through the screen and an overflow that is
rejected by the screen.
• Right system for faultless Performance for specific feeds,
• Main Parameters for Design;
Nature of feed, Feed rate to the screen surface, Percent undersize and oversize,
Screen aperture, Bulk Density, stickiness of materials, Particle Shape (natural sand
& gravel or crushed stone or mineral ore). Percent open area of screening medium
selected.
• Appropriate Selection of Separation scheme based of the phases of the feed,
• Universal “rules of thumb” for optimum depth of bed, according to of aperture
size.
• Retention time and loading capacity for peak efficiency which influence
exponentially with bed depth.

10/31/19 32
Classification of separation techniques according
to phases involved.
Type of mixture Techniques
Liquid–liquid Distillation Extraction Decantation Dialysis and
electro-dialysis Parametric pumping
Solid–solid Screening Leaching Flotation Air classification
Solid–gas Cycloning Air filtration Scrubbing Electrostatic
precipitation
Solid–liquid Sedimentation Centrifugation Filtration Membrane
separations

10/31/19 33
 Material balance over screen
Simple material balance can be written over a screen which are useful in calculating
Ratios of the feed
Oversize
Underflow
Desired cut diameter
Let F, D, and B be the mass flow rates of the feed, overflow, and under flow respectively
Let xF, xD and xB be the mass fractions of oversize material in these three streams.
 Material balance over screen
  
The mass fractions of undersize material in the feed, overflow
and underflow are 1-xF, 1-xD and 1-xB
Since the total material fed to the screen must leave it either
as underflow or overflow
F= D+B
The material A in the feed must also leave in these two
stream and
FxF = DxD + BxB
Elimination of B from equation A and B gives
 Material balance over screen
Separations by screen are almost never perfect.
Some undersize particles are usually left in the material retained on a
given screen.
Sometimes oversize particles find their way through the screen into the
undersize.
Completeness of the separation depend on screen efficiency
 Various formulas have been proposed.
A uniform method of calculating overall efficiency however has never
been established.
 Screen effectiveness: A measure of success of
the screen in closely separating the feed into over size ( which is
retained on the screen) and under size

The effectiveness of a screen (often called screen efficiency) is a

quantitative measure of degree of separation of materials A and B.
If the screen functioned properly all of the material A would be in the
overflow and all of the material in B would be in underflow.
Screen effectiveness is the ratio of oversize material A that is actually in
the overflow to the amount of A entering with the feed.
These quantities are DxF and FxF respectively.
 Screen capacity
Quantity of material fed per unit time per unit area of the screen. Kg/m2-sec
Capacity and efficiency HAVE INVERSE RELATION.
Efficiency depends on :
i. the rate of feed to the screening unit.
ii. the nature of the screening operation.
iii. undersize particle is a function of the number of times particles strikes the
screen surface and
iv. the probability of passage during a single contact.
If the screen is overloaded the number of contact is small and the chance of
passage on contact is reduced by the interference of the other particles and
efficiency drops
 Computation of screen effectiveness

A common measure of screen effectiveness is the ratio of oversize material A i.e.

actually in the overflow to the amount of A entering in the feed

Where EA is the screen effectiveness based on the oversize. Similarly an

effectiveness EB based on the undersize can be written as

A combines overall effectiveness is the product of the two individual ratios of EA and EB

Substituting D/F and B/F gives the following equation.

10/31/19 39
 Screen capacity
The probability of passage of a particle through a screen
depends on the
i. fraction of the total surface represented by openings
ii. Ratio of the diameter of the particle to the width of an
opening in the screen.
iii. Number of contacts between the particle and the screen
surface.
Screen capacity
Efficiency can be improved at the expense of capacity
reduction,
 If loading is low, number of contacts between particles and
screen are increased which enhances the chances of particles to
pass through the screen on each contact.
 Under loaded screens i.e. progressively efficiency decreases,
[in general low for particle sizes smaller than 150 mesh (0.1mm)]
 Example 30.1 (McCabe smith 5th edition)
A quartz mixture having
the screen analysis shown
in table is screened through
a standard 10mesh screen.
The cumulative screen
analysis of overflow and
underflow are given in
table.
Calculate the mass ratios
of the overflow and
underflow to feed and
overall effectiveness of the
screen.
10/31/19 43
10/31/19 44
 CHAPTER # 29 MECHNICAL SEPARATION
Unit Operations of Chemical Engineering (7 e)
By McCabe, W.L. Smith, J.C. & Harriot, P.

Sedimentation
• Sedimentation – A process of settling of the particles in a suspension
(fluid +solid particles) under the effect of gravity or due to any other
force.
• Rate of sedimentation depends upon the size, density of particles, and
physical properties of the fluids.
• The particle that settles from the suspension, known as sediment, and
the fluid is known as sludge.
• For example, sand and silt can be carried in suspension with the river 
water due to high velocity in hilly areas and 
• Eventually the slit, sand, and sedimentary rocks, sediment in plane areas
 4 TYPES OF SEDIMENTATION PROCESSES:

Type 1
Dilutes, non-flocculent, free-settling
(every particle settles independently.)

Type 2
Dilute, flocculent (particles can
flocculate as they settle).

Type 3
Concentrated suspensions, zone
settling, hindered settling (sludge
thickening).

Type 4
Concentrated suspensions,
compression (sludge thickening).
Gravity sedimentation processes
Density difference is needed between particle and the fluid ,
When a particle moves in fluid, a number of forces act on the particle,
i.e. Gravity force, Buoyant Force and Drag Force.
Stokes’ Law- describes the influence of various resisting force on a particle moving through a viscous
fluid and the maximum velocity of a particle falling under gravity through a fluid.

Stokes’ Law
FD = 3π μ u Dp
0

Widely used for Primary treatment of sewage to remove

floating and settle-able solids by sedimentation
STOKES’S LAW - 
  A law to calculate the settling velocities of small spherical particles in a fluid medium.  (British 
scientist Sir George G. Stokes in 1851) 
 Derived by consideration of the forces acting on a particular particle as it sinks through a liquid
column under the influence of gravity .

Stoke's law based on the fallowing assumptions:

•There is no other particle nearby that would affect the flow

pattern.
•The motion of the particle is constant.
•The particle is spherical or sphericity may be known.
•The air velocity right at the particle surface is zero.
•The fluid is incompressible.

The law is important for the researches to select the correct microsphere to
optimize the performance of the particle in a solution, accuracy of data collected,
and precision of the fluid flow calculations.
• The settling velocity and settling time are inversely proportional to (diameter) 2 of the
spherical
• The most critical variable is the difference in the densities (particle & liquid.) & also
Viscosity of the liquid

Fall or Settling Velocity :

Vt = gd2 (ρp - ρm)/18µ

Acceleration of Gravity :
g= 18 µ Vt /d2( ρp - ρm)

Particle Diameter :
d= 18 µ Vt /g (ρp - ρm)

Density of Medium :
ρm = ρp - 18 µ Vt/ d2
 What is the time of settlement of coarse particle of a
soil sample, of diameter (D) 0.5?
Take (settling velocity) V=0.905D2 and height of water
tank as 5 m.
a) 11.6 seconds
b) 72.8 seconds
c) 14 seconds
d) 22.1 seconds
Answer: d
Explanation: V=0.905(0.5)2=0.2263 m/sec
Time of settlement, T=h/v =5/0.2263=22.1 seconds
A mixture of fine sand, silt and clay 
Gravity sedimentation process

Mechanical  separations  are  based  upon  the  sedimentation  of  solid  particles  or 
liquid drops through the fluid, impelled either by,
Force of gravity or
Centrifugal force
In  certain  processes  the  objective  of  the  sedimentation  process  is  to  remove 
contaminants from the fluid (liquid or gas),
To recover the useful particles,
In  some  problems,  particles  are  deliberately  suspended  in  fluids  to  obtain 
separation of particles into fractions differing in size or density.
Gravity sedimentation process
Many mechanical separations are based
on the sedimentation of solid particles or
liquid drops through the fluid, impelled or
caused either by, Gravity
i. Force of gravity, or sedimentation.

ii. Centrifugal force.

In certain processes the objective of the
sedimentation process is to remove
contaminants from the fluid (liquid or gas),
To recover the useful particles,
In some problems, particles are
intentionally suspended in fluids to obtain
separation of particles into fractions
differing in size or density. Centrifugal
sedimentation.
Gravity sedimentation process stages
The particles initially at rest with respect to the fluid in which the particles
are immersed,
Particles move through the fluid by an external force (e.g. gravity),
 Motion of the particles can be divided into two stages,
i. First stage is the short period of acceleration during which velocity
increases from zero to terminal falling velocity.
ii. Second stage- when the particle is at its terminal falling velocity.
Initial acceleration affects are short range usually in the order of tens of
second or less.
Some separation methods, jigging and gravity separation, depends upon
the particle’s behaviour during acceleration period.
 Goals of gravity sedimentation:

Gravity separation can obviously be applied, if particles density is greater than the fluid.
1) Produce a clarified (free of suspended solids) effluent.
2) Produce a highly concentrated solid sludge

Type I (Discrete sedimentation):

• Unhindered settling that removes the discrete particles
in a very low concentration without interference from
nearby particles.
• In general, if the concentration of the solutions is less
than 500 mg/L total suspended solids,
sedimentation will be considered discrete.
•Occurs in dilute suspensions, particles which have very
little interaction with each other as they settle.
•Particles settle according to Stokes law
•Design parameter is surface overflow rate.
Type II
(flocculent sedimentation)
•Particles flocculate as they settle,
•Flocculating particle velocity increase
with time,
•Design parameters:
1.Surface overflow rate
2.Depth of tank, or
3. Hydraulic retention time
Sedimentation Calculations
Differential settling method

• For different particles A & B, settling in Stokes regime, equations becomes;
EXAMPLE
 Types of Gravity sedimentation
process
Clarifiers:
 A settling tank with mechanical means for
continuous removal of solids being deposited
by sedimentation.
 Generally used to remove solid particulates
or suspended solids from liquid for
clarification (or) thickening
 Concentrated impurities, discharged from
the bottom of the tank are known as sludge,
 while the particles that float to the surface of
the liquid are called scum or filth.
A settler that virtually removes all the
particle from a liquid is called as
clarifier.
Classifier:
A device that separates the solids into two fractions is called as classifier.
Used for separating solids of different characteristics by controlled rates of settling.
 Materials can be classified hydraulically or
pneumatically
 Pros & Cons of Classifiers

Used for selective separation on the bases of size and density,

Unsuitable for treating coarse feeds [ feeds must be screened .
 Clarifier Loading Calculations

Detention Time (DT) = Tank Volume, MG X 24

Flow into Tank, MGD

Flow, gallons/day
Surface Overflow Rate (SOR) =
Surface Area, ft2

Weir Overflow Rate (WOR) = Flow, gallons/day

Length of Weir, ft

Solids, lbs/day
Solids Loading =
Surface Area, ft2
Differential settling method

All  particles  of  light  component  B  having  diameters  between  D P1  and 
DP2 will settle more slowly than any particle of the heavy substance A 
and can be obtained as a pure fraction. 
Any  particle  of  substance  A  having  diameters  between  DP3  and  DP4 
settle faster than any particle of substance B and can also be obtained 
as a pure fraction. 
But any light particle having a diameter between DP2 and DP4 settles at 
the same speed as a particle of substance A in the size range between 
DP1 and DP3, as a result mixed fraction is obtained. 
Differential settling method
Centrifugal sedimentation process
• Centrifugal separator - a machine
that separates two mixed
components of different density (as
cream in milk or oil in sludge) by
centrifugal force which accelerates
separation and divides in 2 distinct
phases during centrifugation.

• Centrifugation is the most common

method used for uranium
enrichment because of the slight
mass difference between atoms of
U238 and U235 in uranium
hexafluoride
 Centrifugal Separation
• .

Applications of centrifugal
separation
• Suitable for the components
having narrow densities,
• Separating particles from an
air-flow using cyclonic
separation,
• Removing fat from milk to
produce skimmed milk,
• Separating chalk powder from
water
• Analysis of urine and blood
components in forensic and
research laboratories,
• Useful technique to purify
proteins, vitamins etc.

69
Principle of CENTRIFUGAL SEDIMENTATION
To increase the settling rate, the force of gravity acting on
Device 
the particle, may be replaced by a much stronger Rotates
centrifugal force.
Centrifugal sedimentation have great effectiveness in
case of fine drops separation, and their much smaller size
for a given capacity as compared to the gravity based
sedimentation process.
  Two main categories of centrifugal sedimentation i.e.
cyclone separators and centrifuges.
Dust laden air travels in a spiral path around and down
Device Stationary 
the cylindrical body of the cyclone. but 
Stream Circulates
Centrifugal force tends to move the particles towards the
wall, and the particles that move towards the wall move
towards the bottom.
 • A cyclonic separation is a method of removing
particulates from an air, gas or liquid stream,
without the use of filters, through vortex separation.

• A high speed rotating air flows within a cylindrical or

conical container called a cyclone.
• Air flows in a helical pattern entering in the top
(wider) of the cyclone which leaves from the bottom
(narrow) the cyclone in a straight at the centre of
the cyclone and out the top.
• Larger (denser) particles in the rotating stream have
too much inertia to follow the tight curve of the
stream, and strike the outside wall, then fall to the
bottom of the cyclone where they can be removed.
• In a conical system, as the rotating flow moves
towards the narrow end of the cyclone, the
rotational radius of the stream is reduced, thus
separating smaller and smaller particles.
 Separation from Gases; cyclones
Most centrifugal separators to remove particles from gas stream
contain no moving part, as shown in fig. 29.38
• Mainly consist of a vertical cylinder with a conical bottom, a
tangential inlet near the top and outlet for dust at the
bottom of the cone
• The inlet is usually rectangular, outlet pipe is extended into
the cylinder to prevent short circuiting of air from inlet to
outlet
• The incoming dust with air travel in a spiral path around and
down the cylindrical body of the cyclone
Fig# 
• The centrifugal force developed in the vertex tend to move 29.38
the particles around the wall and the particles fall down into
the cone and are collected
• The cyclone is basically is the settling device in which a
strong centrifugal force acts radially as compared to weak
Separation Factor:
Ratio of centrifugal force to the force of gravity is called as ‘Separation Factor’.
Large diameter cyclone has much lower separation factor.
Velocities usually above 50 to 70 ft/sec are usually impractical because of high pressure
drop and increased abrasive wear.
Small diameter cyclones can also operate in parallel to handle large volumes .
 COLLECTION EFFICIENCY OF CYCLONES
EFFICIENCY OF CYCLONES
depends upon feed rates,
cyclone diameter and height,
pressure drop and entering
velocity, density of the
particles, viscosity of feed,
loading rate and leakages
from the cyclone,
 Maximum achievable
efficiency is 80 to 90 %
for particles larger than
15 to 20 micron.
 A cyclone separator is a
device that separates
particles from a gas
stream using centrifugal
force. 29.39
 Discussion on Fig. 29.39
COLLECTION EFFICIENCY OF CYCLONES

 Collection efficiency highly depends upon the particles trajectories with in the
cyclone,
 Particles trajectories are difficult to measure but can be determined by empirical
equations,
Typical data for commercial cyclones is plotted in fig. 29.39, which shows a strong
effect of particle size and cyclone diameter on collection efficiency.
 Fig 29.39 indicates that cyclones efficiency decreases with the decrease of particle
size,
 Collection efficiency cyclones increases with the particle density as the
temperature increases and decreases for gases because the density of gases
increase with the rise of temperature.
Cyclones efficiency is higher at the full load as compared to partial load,
Sometimes 2 identical cyclones are used in series but efficiency of the 2nd cyclone
is less as compared to 1st one.
 Settling time is limited by the
residence time of the liquid in
the bowl,
 At the end of this time let the
particle be at a distance ‘ rB ‘
from the axis of rotation,
 If rB < r2 the particles leaves the
bowl with liquid ,
 If rB = r2 , the particle deposits on
bowl’s wall and removed from the
liquid,

29.45
Cut Point:
• A cut point is defined as the diameter that just reaches one half the distance
between r1 and r2.
• If Dpc is the cut diameter, a particle of this size moves a distance y=(r2-r1)/2,
during the settling time allowed.
• If the particle of Dpc is to be removed, it must travel and reach the bowl wall in
the available time, thus Rb=R2 and Ra = (R1+R2)/2, then the equation becomes, 

qc volumetric flow rate at cut diameter,

for Practical conditions flow rates must be kept higher than qc
 micron
micron

Important In the field of environmental engineering,

 Knowledge of cyclone collection efficiency is essential to design & analysis the
performance of coal power plants,
 Estimation of particle removal rate from exhaust streams is a key factor to
determine environmental impact analysis.
 The higher values of ”η” are preferred,
 Collection efficiency (i.e. rate of particle removal) helps the engineers to predict
environmental conditions.
 Design of Sedimenting Centrifuge

Estimation of terminal velocity of liquid in the bowl & volumetric flow rates,

29.76

Equ. 29.76

29.77

Equ. 29.76

29.78
 Calculation of residence time and qc
If thickness of layer becomes too small, that the above equation becomes
indeterminate, in these conditions the settling velocity can be considered
constant and given by,

29.80

29.81

29.82

Combining Eqs. 29.77 to 29.80 and solving for qc gives

29.83
 Sigma value ; Scale up

• Sigma value is a characteristic of the centrifuge and Ug is the terminal velocity

of the particle under gravity conditions
• To estimate the size of the cyclone required to replace gravity settling separator.

• Σ is the cross sectional area of gravity settling device of same capacity

as the centrifuge,
Liquid solids separations; hydro-cyclones
Definition and Basic Function

• A hydro cyclone (is a device to classify, separate or

sort particles in a liquid suspension based on the
ratio of their centripetal force to fluid resistance.

• Used for separating solids from liquids, are called

hydro cyclones or hydro clones,

• Hydro cyclones can also separate 2 liquids having

different densities’’

• Also works as thickeners as well classifiers.

Functioning of hydro cyclones
Feed enters tangentially at high velocity near the top and liquid
follows a spiral path in the vessel, forming a strong downward
vortex.
Large or heavy particles separate to the wall which fall
downward and discharges from the cyclone as a slurry or
paste.
A variable discharge orifice controls the consistency of the
under flow.
 Liquid goes back upward in an inner vortex and leaves
through the central discharge pipe, which is known as vortex
finder.
The pressure drop ∆p in a hydroclone varies with the feed rate
raised to power between 2.0 to 3.3.
For a given pressure drop a small diameter gives better
separation than a large one.
Smaller hydrocyclones are preferred.
 
Operational Details of hydro cyclones
 Type of hydro-cyclones separators

Liquid solid separations i.e. hydro-cyclones
Centrifugal decanters 
Tubular centrifuge 
Disk centrifuge 
Nozzle discharge centrifuge 
Sludge operators 
 Flocculation & Coagulation
 In colloid chemistry, flocculation is a process
by which fine particulates combine together
due to an agent { commonly know as floc/
Flocculants},
 Flocking agents are the chemicals that
promote flocculation by colliding the
suspended particles in liquids to aggregate,
 Flocculated matter may float to the top of the
liquid (creaming), or settle down
(sedimentation) which can be separated by
filtration,
In water treatment Flocculation improves
filterability, otherwise tiny Suspended solids
(micrometres in diameter) can not settle under
gravity or settle very slowly for practical
operation.
Fortunately, agglomerates or clusters
particles, settle at reasonable rates and ease
 Coagulation-flocculation
• Conventional pre-treatment method (typically
in combination with sedimentation and
filtration),
• used to separate the suspended and dissolved
compounds ( turbidity ) from the water in
• Coagulation i.e. the clotting of blood to form
solid masses, or bigger clots.
• More than 30 types of cells and substances in
blood affect clotting. Medicines to control
clotting and platelets in human body ,
Coagulation and flocculation are important
processes in water treatment with
coagulation to destabilize particles through
chemical reaction between coagulant and
colloids, and flocculation to transport the
destabilized particles ,
 Batch sedimentation or Flocculation
• The process by which scattered fine particles clot-like masses or precipitate into small lumps..
• Flocculation : the process of agglomeration of destabilized particles to such a size that can be separated by
sedimentation or by filtration
• Flocculation occurs due to a chemical reaction between 2 component particles by the addition of an agent e.g.
salt + Alums + water
Flocculation occurs in several stages or
in different zones,
 Batch sedimentation or Flocculation
is suitable, when the concentration
of solids is high enough that
sedimentation of individual particles
or flocs is hindered by other solids,
At first the solid is uniformly
distributed and well mixed in the
liquid,
After some time the matter settle
down or floats or divided in 2
distinct zones,
 Filtration
 Filtration is a mechanical, physical or biological operation to separate solids from fluids
(liquids or gases) by passing through a medium in which only the fluid can pass,
 The fluid that passes through is called the filtrate,
 FILTRATION
• Filtration may be defined as the separation of solid from a
fluid by
means of a porous medium that retains the solid but allows the
fluid to pass.

*The suspension of solid and liquid to be filtered is known as the

slurry. The
porous medium used to retain the solids is described as the filter
medium;

• The accumulation of solids on the filter is referred to as the

filter cake, while the clear liquid
• passing through the filter is the filtrate.
 Factors Affecting Filtration

Filtration is affected by the characteristics of the slurry,

including:
1- The properties of the liquid , such as density, viscosity, and
corrosiveness.
2- The properties of the solid, for example, particle shape,
particle size, particle size distribution, and the rigidity or
compressibility of the solid.
3- The proportion of solids in the slurry.
4- Whether the objective is to collect the solid, the liquid ,or
both.
5- Whether the solids have to be washed free from the liquid
or a solute.
 Applications of Filtration
Filtration is used to separate particles and fluid in a suspension, Fluids can be a liquid, a gas
Depending on the application, either one or both of the components may be isolated.
• Filtration, as a physical operation is very important for the separation or purification of materials ;
• A solvent is chosen which dissolves one component, while not dissolving the other.
• Filtration is an important and widely used unit operation of chemical engineering & simultaneousl
applied with other unit operations to process materials, e.g.
bio-filter combined with other filters for biological digestion.
• Filtration differs from sieving, where separation occurs at a single perforated layer (a sieve). In
• Filtration, a multilayer lattice retains those particles that are unable to follow the indirect channels
of the filter.
• Filtration differs from removal of magnetic separation because there is no filter medium in
magnetic separation .
 Difference Between Permeable And Semi Permeable Membrane

• Permeable membrane allow molecules of all sizes to pass,

• Permeable membrane (also known as porous or pervious surfaces) allow
water to penetrate into the soil to filter out pollutants and recharge the water
table.
• Example of a permeable membrane in nature is the cell wall in plant cells.
They are fully permeable to water, molecules, and proteins.
• semi-permeable membrane allow certain molecules or ions to pass through.
is a type of biological or synthetic, polymeric membrane.
• Example of Semi-permeable: Molecules hydrocarbons and oxygen can cross
the membrane but large molecules ( e.g. glucose and other sugars) cannot.
Water can pass through the lipids.
• Impermeable/impervious surfaces are solid surfaces that don't allow water to
penetrate, forcing it to run off.
 (precoat filtration)
or expanded perlite

10/31/19 WATER FILTRATION 97
 Rate of Filtration:
• All other things being equal, the object of the operation
is to filter the slurry as quickly as possible.
• The factors affecting rate of filtration is known as
Darcy”s law and may be expressed as:
• dV / dt = KA P /ul
where
V= volume of filtrate, t = time of filtration ,
K = constant for the filter medium and filter cake ,
A = area of filter medium ,
P = pressure drop across the filter medium and filter
cake ,
u = viscosity of the filtrate , and l = thickness of cake.
Factors affecting rate of filtration

1- Permeability coefficient: The constant (K) represents the resistance of

both the filter medium and the filter cake. As the thickness of the cake
increase, the rate of filtration will decrease. Also the surface area of the
particles .the porosity of the cake, and rigidity or compressibility of the
particles could affect the permeability of the cake.

2- Area of filter medium: The total volume of filtrate flowing from the
filter will be proportional to the area of the filter. The area can be
increased by using larger filters. In the rotary drum filter, the continuous
removal of the filter cake will give an infinite area for filtration.
3- Pressure drop;
The rate of filtration is proportional to the pressure difference across both
the filter medium and filter cake.

The pressure drop can be achieved in a number of ways:

• Gravity: A pressure difference could be obtained by maintaining a head of
slurry above the filter medium. The pressure developed will depend on
the density of the slurry.
• Vacuum: The pressure below the filter medium may be reduced below
atmospheric pressure by connecting the filtrate receiver to a vacuum
pump and creating a pressure difference across the filter.
• Pressure: The simplest method being to pump the slurry into the filter
under pressure.
• Centrifugal force: The gravitational force could be replaced by centrifugal
force in particle separation,
•4- Viscosity of filtrate:
• It would be expect that an increase in the viscosity of the filtrate will increase the
resistance of flow , so that the rate of filtration is inversely proportional to the viscosity of
the fluid.
• This problem can be overcome by two methods:
• a- The rate of filtration may be increased by raising the temperature of the liquid, which
lowers its viscosity. However, it is not practicable if thermo-sensitive materials are involved
or if the filtrate is volatile.
• b- Dilution is another alternative but the rate must be doubled.          

• 5- Thickness of filter cake; 

• The rate of flow of the filtrate through the filter cake is inversely proportional to thickness
of the cake. Preliminary decantation may be useful to decrease the amount of the solids.
Batch Sedimentation:
Batch Sedimentation:
Equipment for Sedimentation:
Industrially, above process is carried out on a large scale in equipments called as thickeners.
A batch or continuous process can be used.
Large, fairly shallow tank with slow moving radial rakes driven from the central shaft.
Bottom may be flat or shallow cone.
Feed slurry being more dense, tend to move towards bottom until it finds the liquid of equal
density, then it moves radially outwards.
Liquor moves radially at a constant decreasing velocity allowing the solids to settle to the
bottom of the tank.
Below the feed level is the zone of hindered settling, and near the bottom, a compression
zone in which the solid concentration is high.
 Gravity classifiers
Equipment for Sedimentation:
•   Clarifier and Thickener design:


The principle quantities to be specified in designing a thickener are cross-sectional

area and the depth.
In case of continuous thickener, the total downward solids flux is made up of two
parts
The flux of solids carried by the down flowing liquid, (This type of flux is called as
transport flux ‘Gt’ and is a product of solids concentration ‘c’ and downward
velocity ‘u’).
An additional flux resulting from settling of solids through the liquid, (second is
settling flux ‘Gs’, which is a product of solids concentration and settling rate
dZ/dt,
Clarifier and Thickener design:
• Settling flux increases with increasing the
concentration, but beyond a certain concentration, it
starts to decrease at high concentration.
• Previously shown diagram of sedimentation, shows
only the declining flux portion of the curve, and
dashed line shows the approximate shape of the
curve for low concentrations.
• Usually a thickener operates at a high underflow
concentration, and the design is based on the
declining flux part of the curve.
Clarifier and Thickener design:
• Transport  flux  increases  linearly  with 
concentration  and  is  much  lower  than  the 
settling flux at low concentrations.
• Transport  flux  becomes  major  controlling 
factor at high concentrations.
 Principle of Centrifugal sedimentation (Centrifugal decanters)
In a sedimenting centrifuge;
  A particle of a given size is removed from the liquid if sufficient time is
available for the particles to reach the wall of the separator bowl.
 To calculate Diameter of the smallest particle to be removed, it is assumed
that
i. the particle always moves radially at its terminal velocity,
ii. Liquid carrying solid particles moves upwardly at a constant velocity,
Feed point is at the bottom, and the liquid discharge at the top.
Suppose a particle, at a distance ‘ra’ from the axis of rotation.
It starts to settle at a distance ‘rb’ from the axis of rotation.