Topics to be Covered

 Sequences
 Series
 Arithmeticprogression
 Geometric progression

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 Sequences and series
 A sequence is an ordered list of numbers,
usually defined according to a formula: sn = a
function of n = 1, 2, 3,...
 If s is a sequence {sn| n = 1, 2, 3,…},
 s1 denotes the first element,
 s2 the second element,…
 sn the nth element…
 {n} is called the indexing set of the sequence.
Usually the indexing set is N (natural numbers)
or an infinite subset of N.
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 Examples of sequences

Examples:
1. Let s = {sn} be the sequence defined by
sn = 1/n , for n = 1, 2, 3,…
The first few elements of the sequence are: 1, ½, 1/3, ¼,
1/5,1/6,…
2. Let s = {sn} be the sequence defined by
sn = n2 + 1, for n = 1, 2, 3,…
The first few elements of s are: 2, 5, 10, 17, 26, 37, 50,…
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 Increasing and decreasing
A sequence s = {sn} is said to be
 increasing if sn < sn+1
 decreasing is sn > sn+1,
for every n = 1, 2, 3,…
Examples:
 Sn = 4 – 2n, n = 1, 2, 3,… is decreasing:
2, 0, -2, -4, -6,…

 Sn = 2n -1, n = 1, 2, 3,… is increasing:

1, 3, 5, 7, 9, …
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 Subsequences

A subsequence of a sequence s = {sn} is a

sequence t = {tn} that consists of certain
elements of s retained in the original order
they had in s
 Example: let s = {sn = n | n = 1, 2, 3,…}
 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8,…
 Let t = {tn = 2n | n = 1, 2, 3,…}
 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, 14, 16,…
 t is a subsequence of s

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 Series
 If the terms of a sequence are considered
as a sum, the expression is called a
series
 A series with a finite number of terms is
called a finite series
 A series with an infinite number of terms
is called an infinite series

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 Arithmetical Progression
 If any term in a series may be obtained
from the previous term by adding a
certain number, called the common
difference, then this type of series is called
an Arithmetic Progression (AP)
 Examples
1+3+5+7+…+99
7+11+15+…+79

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 Geometrical Progression
 In a Geometrical Progression (GP) the
ratio of a term to the previous one is a
constant, called the common ratio.
 Examples
1+1/2+1/4+1/8+….+1/512
3+6+12+…+192

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 Sums of AP
 If the first term of an AP is a, the nth term is l and the
common difference is d, we may find the sum Sn of the first
n terms
 We have
Sn = a + (a+d)+…+(l-d)+l
and again
Sn = l + (l-d) +…+(a+d)+a
Adding
2Sn = (a+l)+(a+l)+…+(a+l)+(a+l)
Now there are n terms on the RHS
2Sn = n(a+l)
Sn = n(a+l)
2

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 Sums of AP
 If the first term of an AP is a, the nth term is l and the
common difference is d, we may find the sum Sn of the first
n terms
 We also have
Sn = a + (a+d)+ (a+2d)+ (a+3d)+…+ l
Therefore
l = a+(n-1)d

We have
Sn = n(a+l)
2
Sn = (n/2)(a+l))
By substitution of l = a+(n-1)d
Sn = (n/2)(a+ a+(n-1)d))
10
Sn = (n/2)(2a + (n-1)d)
 Sum of GP
 If the first term of a G.P is a and the common ratio is r, we
may find the sum Sn of the first n terms
Sn = a + ar +ar2+…+arn-1
rSn = ar +ar2+…+arn-1+arn
Subtracting,
Sn – rSn = a – arn
Sn(1-r) = a(1-rn)
Sn = a(1-rn)
(1-r)
An alternative formula is obtained by multiplying the
numerator and denominator by -1
Sn = a(rn-1)
(r-1)

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 Sum of GP
 If the first term of a G.P is a and the common ratio is r, we
may find the sum Sn of the terms to the nth index
(Geometric Sum)
Sn = a + ar +ar2+…+arn-1 +arn
rSn = ar +ar2+…+arn-1+arn +arn+1
Subtracting,
Sn – rSn = a – arn+1
Sn(1-r) = a(1-rn+1)
Sn = a(1-rn+1)
(1-r)
An alternative formula is obtained by multiplying the
numerator and denominator by -1
Sn = a(rn+1-1)
(r-1)
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 Infinite Geometrical Progressions
 Consider the geometrical progression:
1+1/2+1/4+1/8…+1/2n-1
The sum of these n terms, obtained by
formula,
Sn = 1 –(1/2)n = 2( 1 – (1/2)n )
1 –(1/2)
Now as n increases, (1/2)n approaches
zero. Therefore the sum of n terms as
approaches 2, as n increases
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 Infinite Geometrical Progressions
 We say that the limit of Sn is 2
 This limit is called the sum to infinity
 In general, the sum of the geometrical
progression
Sn = a + ar +ar2+…+arn-1 = a(rn-1)
(r-1)
If r lies between -1 and +1, i.e. |r|<1, the rn
approaches zero as n increases, and the sum to
infinity of the GP
a + ar +ar2+…+arn-1+… = a
1-r

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 Sigma notation

If {an} is a sequence, then the sum

m

 ak = a1 + a2 + … + a m
k =1

This is called the “sigma notation”, where the

Greek letter  indicates a sum of terms
from the sequence
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 Sigma Notation
 Example
12+ 22+…+ n2
may be written as
n

 m2
m =1

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 Pi notation

If {an} is a sequence, then the product

m

 ak = a1a2…am
k=1

This is called the “pi notation”, where the

Greek letter  indicates a product of terms
of the sequence
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 Example – Arithmetic Progression
In an arithmetic series, the sum of the second term
and the fifth term is 18. The sixth term is greater
than the third term by 9.
 Find the first term and the common difference.
 What is the smallest value of n such that Sn >
200, where Sn is the sum of the first n terms of
the series?

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 Example 1 – Arithmetic Progression
In an arithmetic series, the sum of the second term
and the fifth term is 18. The sixth term is greater
than the third term by 9.
Find the first term and the common difference.
 u2 = a + d un = a + (n-1)d ....... 1
 u5 = a + 4d
u2 + u5 = 18
 ⇒ a + d + a + 4d = 18 ⇒ 2a +5d =18 ....(1)
u6 = u3 +9
 ⇒ a + 5d = a + 2d + 9 ⇒ 3d=9 ⇒ d=3 ....(2)
Substituting the value for d into equation (1):
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 ⇒ 2a + 5(3) = 18 ⇒ 2a = 3 ⇒ a = 3/2
 Example 2 – Arithmetic Progression
In an arithmetic series, the sum of the second term
and the fifth term is 18. The sixth term is greater
than the third term by 9.
What is the smallest value of n such that Sn > 200,
where Sn is the sum of the first n terms of the
series?
 Sn = (n/2)(2a + (n-1)d) > 200
 (n/2)[2 (3/2) + (n-1) (3)] > 200
 (n/2)[3 + 3n - 3] > 200
 3n2 > 400
 n > 11.6
 As n is of the set of Natural Numbers, n = 12 20
 Introduction to Generating Functions
 The generating function of a sequence a0, a1, a2…
is the expression
f(x) = a0+a1x+a2x2+…..
Example
1. The generating function of the sequence of
natural numbers is
f(x) = 1+2x+3x2+4x3…..

2. The generating function of the arithmetic

sequence 1, 4, 7, 10 is
f(x) = 1+4x+7x2+10x3…..

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 Topics Covered
 Sequences
 Series
 Arithmeticprogression
 Geometric progression

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