11/7/2019 Prepared by Mrs - Poonam Yadav

11/7/2019 Prepared by Mrs.
Poonam Yadav
Unit-1 Cover Points
 Transmission media: Copper Wires, Glass Fibers, Radio, Satellites,
Microwave, Infrared, and Light wave.
 Transmission Errors, Parity Bits And Parity Checking.
 LAN Topologies, Star Topology, Ring Topology, Bus Topology, The Reason
For Multiple Topologies
 The Concept Of Packets, Packets And Time-Division Multiplexing, Packets
And Hardware Frames
 Direct Point-to-Point Communication, Shared Communication Channels,
Significance Of LANs And Locality Of Reference.
 Example Bus Network: Ethernet, History Of The Ethernet, Sharing On An
Ethernet.
 Carrier Sense On Multi-Access Networks (CSMA), Collision Detection
And Backoff With CSMA/CD, Wireless LANs And CSMA/CA
 Another Example Bus Network: LocalTalk
 Example Ring Network: IBM Token Ring
 Another Example Ring Network: FDDI
 Example Star Network: ATM.
11/7/2019 Prepared by Mrs.Poonam Yadav

Transmission Media: Twisted Pair, Coaxial
cable, Optical Fibre

Transmission Medium
 In a data transmission system, the transmission medium is the
physical path between transmitter and receiver.
 The transmission media that are used to convey information
can be classified as guided or unguided
 Guided media provide a physical path along which the signals
are propagated; these include twisted pair, coaxial cable, and
optical fiber.
 Unguided media employ an antenna for transmitting through
air, vacuum, or water.

Guided Media Applications
 Traditionally, twisted pair has been the workhorse for
communications of all sorts. Higher data rates over longer
distances can be achieved with coaxial cable, and so coaxial
cable has often been used for high-speed local area network
and for high-capacity long-distance trunk applications.
However, the tremendous capacity of optical fiber has made
that medium more attractive than coaxial cable, and thus
optical fiber has taken over much of the market for high-speed
LANs and for long-distance applications.

Unguided Media Application
 Unguided transmission techniques commonly used for
information communications include broadcast radio, terrestrial
microwave, and satellite. Infrared transmission is used in some
LAN applications.
 In considering the design of data transmission systems, key
concerns are data rate and distance: the greater the data rate and
distance the better.

Factors Affecting Transmission Medium
and Signal
A number of design factors relating to the transmission
medium and the signal determine the data rate and
distance:
 Bandwidth: All other factors remaining constant, the greater
the bandwidth of a signal, the higher the data rate that can be
achieved.
 Transmission impairments: Impairments, such as
attenuation, limit the distance. For guided media, twisted pair
generally suffers more impairment than coaxial cable, which in
turn suffers more than optical fiber.

Factors Affecting Transmission
Medium and Signal
 Interference: Interference from competing signals in overlapping
frequency bands can distort or wipe out a signal. Interference is of particular
concern for unguided media but is also a problem with guided media. For
guided media, interference can be caused by emanations from nearby
cables. For example, twisted pairs are often bundled together and conduits
often carry multiple cables. Interference can also be experienced from
unguided transmissions. Proper shielding of a guided medium can minimize
this problem.
 Number of receivers: A guided medium can be used to construct a point-
to point link or a shared link with multiple attachments. In the latter case,
each attachment introduces some attenuation and distortion on the line,
limiting distance and/or data rate.

Twisted Pair Cable
 The most common application of the twisted pair is the telephone
system.
 For longer distances, repeaters are needed.
 A twisted pair consists of two insulated copper wires typically about
1 mm thick. The wires are twisted together in a helical form.
 The purpose of twisting the wires is to reduce electrical interferences
from similar pairs close by.
 Twisted pairs can be used for either analog or digital transmission.
 The bandwidth depends on the thickness of the wire and the distance
travelled, but in many cases several megabits/sec.

 Shielded twisted-pair(STP)
Shielded twisted-pair cabling consists of one or more twisted pairs of
cables enclosed in a foil wrap and woven copper shielding. first
cable type used with IBM Token Ring. Early LAN designers used
shielded twisted-pair cable because the shield further reduces the
tendency of the cable to radiate EMI and thus reduces the cable’s
sensitivity to outside interference.
 Unshielded Twisted-Pair (UTP) Cable.
Unshielded twisted-pair cable doesn’t incorporate a braided shield into its structure.
However, the characteristics of UTP are similar in many ways to STP, differing
primarily in attenuation and EMI. Telephone systems commonly use UTP cabling.
Network engineers can sometimes use existing UTP telephone cabling (if it is new
enough and of a high enough quality to support network communications) for
network cabling.
UTP cable is a latecomer to high-performance LANs because engineers only recently
solved the problems of managing radiated noise and susceptibility to EMI. Now,
however, a clear trend toward UTP is in operation, and all new copper-based cabling
schemes are based on UTP.

The Electronic Industries Association(EIA) has developed the
standards for twisted pair cable.(UTP-Unshielded Twisted Pair)
twisted pair comes in several varieties, three of which are important
for computer networks. These are:
Category 3 twisted pairs: These consist of two insulated wires gently
twisted together. Four of such pairs are typically grouped together in
a plastic cover for protection and to keep eight wires together.
It can be used at speed up to 16 Mbps.
Category 5 twisted pairs: These are similar to category 3 pairs, but
have more twists per centimeter and Teflon insulation, which results
in less cross talk and better quality of signals over long distances,
making them more suitable for high speed computer communication.
Category 5 can be used at speed up to 100 Mbps.
Category 6 twisted pairs: They are commonly referred to as Cat-6 is a
cable standard for Gigabit Ethernet. The cable contains four twisted
copper wire pairs.
 The maximum length of Cat-6 cable is 100 meters when used for
10/100/1000 base T and 37 meters when used for 10Gbase T.

Co-axial Cable
 Coaxial cables were the first cable types used in LANs. coaxial cable gets its name
because two conductors share a common axis; the cable is most frequently referred
to as a coax. he components of a coaxial cable are as follows:
 A center conductor, although usually solid copper wire, sometimes is made of

stranded wire.
 An outer conductor forms a tube surrounding the center conductor. This conductor
can consist of braided wires, metallic foil, or both. The outer conductor, frequently
called the shield, serves as a ground and also protects the inner conductor from EMI.
 An insulation layer keeps the outer conductor spaced evenly from the inner
conductor.
 A plastic encasement (jacket) protects the cable from damage.

Co-axial Cable
1) Thinnet is a light and flexible cabling medium that is inexpensive and easy
to install.
2) Thicknet—big surprise—is thicker than Thinnet. Thicknet coaxial cable is
approximately 0.5 inches (13 mm) in diameter. Because it is thicker and
does not bend as readily as Thinnet, Thicknet cable is harder to work with.
A thicker center core, however, means that Thicknet can carry more signals a
longer distance than Thinnet. Thicknet can transmit a signal approximately
500 meters (1650 feet). Thicknet cable is sometimes called Standard
Ethernet (although other cabling types described in this chapter are used for
Ethernet also). Thicknet can be used to connect two or more small Thinnet
LANs into a larger network.
Because of its greater size, Thicknet is also more expensive than Thinnet.
Thicknet can be installed safely outside, running from building to building.

Fiber Optic cable
 Fiber-Optic Cable.
In almost every way, fiber-optic

cable is the ideal cable for data
transmission. Not only does this
type of cable accommodate
extremely high bandwidths, but it
also presents no problems with
EMI and supports durable cables
and cable runs as long as several
kilometers. The two
disadvantages of fiber-optic,
however, are cost and installation
difficulty.

Fiber optic cable
A fiber-optic network cable consists of two strands separately
enclosed in plastic sheaths—one strand sends and the other
receives.
Two types of cable configurations are available: loose and tight
configurations.
a) Loose configurations incorporate a space between the fiber
sheath and the outer plastic encasement; this space is filled
with a gel or other material.
b) Tight configurations contain strength wires between the
conductor and the outer plastic encasement. In both cases, the
plastic encasement must supply the strength of the cable, while
the gel layer or strength wires protect the delicate fiber from
mechanical damage.
Assignment Question
 Mr. John who stays in London sends an email to Mr. Bose who
lives in Mumbai. Explain the complete process of data packet
that travels through different layers when send by Mr. John
(sender) till the packet received to Mr. Bose. (Receiver).Also
discuss about various network devices used during data
transmission.

Wireless Communication: Radio Waves,
Microwaves, Infrared

Mode of Propagation

Ground propagation
Radio waves travel through the lowest portion of the atmosphere.
Sky propagation
Higher frequency radio waves radiate upward into the ionosphere (Waves reflects back).
Line-of-sight propagation
Very high frequency signals are transmitted in straight lines directly from antenna to
antenna

Range of frequency is known as bands.

Wireless Communications
 Wireless Communication or unguided media transmission,
transports electromagnetic waves without using a physical
conductor.
 The wireless media for transmitting network packets: radio
waves, infrared signals and microwave.

Radio Waves
 In a radio network transmission, a signal is transmitted in one
or multiple directions, depending on the type of antenna.
 Electromagnetic waves having frequencies between 3kHz and
1 GHz are called radio waves.
 Application of Lower Frequency Radio Waves:
To connect large number of data gathering computers distributed
throughout a rural area to a remote data logging/ monitoring
computers, or for connecting computers within a town or city
to a local or remote computer.
It would be expensive to install fixed wire cables for such
applications. Radio is often used to provide a
cordless(wireless) link between a fixed-wire termination point
and distributed computers.
Working of Radio Waves in Wireless
Communications
 Radio means sending energy with waves. In
other words, it's a method of transmitting
electrical energy from one place to another
without using any kind of direct, wired
connection.
 The equipment that sends out a radio wave is
known as a transmitter; the radio wave sent by
a transmitter whizzes through the air—maybe
from one side of the world to the other—and
completes its journey when it reaches a second
piece of equipment called a receiver.
 When you extend the antenna (aerial) on a radio
receiver, it snatches some of the
electromagnetic energy passing by. Tune the
radio into a station and an electronic circuit
inside the radio selects only the program you
want from all those that are broadcasting.
 Base Station: Each base station
operates using different band of
frequencies from its neighbors.
 Coverage area of each base station is
limited, it is possible to reuse its
frequency band in other parts of
network.
 Base station are connected to the fixed
network as before.
 Scenario: Need to provide a cordless
links to computer based equipment
within each office in building:
 Base station will be located on each
floor of the building and connected to
the fixed network. Each base station
provides cordless links to the fixed
network for all the computers in its
field of coverage.

Packet Transmission using Radio Wave

Advantages & Disadvantage of
Radio Waves:
Advantage:
 Inexpensive where cabling cannot be installed easily.
 Portable communications.
Disadvantage:
 Not feasible when higher speed communications are needed.
 Subject to interferences from the military, amateur radio, cell
phones and other sources.

Application of Radio Wave
Multicasting
AM & FM radio
Television
Maritime radio
Cordless phone

Microwave
 Waves having frequency range is between 1 and 300GHz are
called microwaves.
 Satellite communications is microwave communications.
 Satellite is used to receives transmissions on one frequency
band(uplink) from the ground stations, amplifies or repeats the
signal , and transmits it on another frequency(downlink).
 A single orbiting satellite will operate on a number of
frequency bands called transponder channels or simply
transponders.

Working of Communication Satellite

Geostationary Satellite Communication
• Geostationary satellite remains
stationary with respect to its
position over the earth for the
effectively functions of satellite in
communications.
•Very high frequencies microwave

cannot penetrate walls. This
characteristics can be disadvantage
if receivers are inside buildings.
•Microwaves are used for unicast

communication such as cellular
telephones, satellite networks and
wireless LANs.

Infrared
 Infrared is used in remote control devices for television and
stereo.
 Communication is achieved using transmitter/receivers that
modulate non-coherent infrared light.
Limitation: Transmitter/receivers must be within the line of
sight of each other directly or via reflection from the light
colored surface such as the ceiling of a room.

Infrared Vs Microwave
 Infrared does not penetrate walls hence security and
interference problems encountered in microwave
systems are not present in infrared.
 Infrared transmission may not be feasible when high
speed communication is needed.
 Infrared has a similar wavelength to visible light,
hence it is reflected from shiny surfaces, and it will
pass through glass but not through walls or other
opaque objects.

Disadvantages
 Sunlight and light produced by filament and fluorescent light
sources all contain significant levels of infrared. This is
received by the detector together with the infrared from the
emitter. This means that the noise power can be high, which
leads to requirement for a high signal power to obtain an
acceptable signal to noise ratio. The path loss with infrared can
be high.
 Infrared emitter have a relatively low electrical-to-optical
power conversion efficiency. This lead to high power demand
on battery source.

Infrared in Wireless LAN
 The operational mode is to modulate the intensity of the
infrared output of the emitter using an electrically modulated
signal.
 Two Types of infrared emitter: Laser diode and LED(Light
emitting diodes).
Laser diode are used in optical fiber transmission system.
LEDs use for bit rate less than 10 Mbps and Laser diodes use for
greater than 10 Mbps.

Transmission Errors, Parity Bits And
Parity Checking

Types of Error
Single-bit Error: In a single-bit error, only 1 bit in the data unit
has changed.
Burst Error: A burst error means that 2 or more bits in the

data unit have changed.

Redundancy
 The central concept in detecting or correcting errors is
redundancy.
 To be able to detect or correct errors, we need to send
extra bits with our data. These redundant bits are added by
the sender and removed by the receiver.
 Their presence allows the receiver to detect or correct
corrupted bits.

Detection Versus Correction
 The correction of error is more difficult than the detection.
 In error detection we are only looking to see if any error has occurred. In
that case we are not interested in the number of corrupted bits just to check
yes or no.
 In error correction, we need to know the exact number of bits that are
corrupted and more importantly their location in the message. The number
of errors and the size of message are important factors.
Scenario: Suppose If we need to correct a single error in an 8-bit data unit, we
need to consider eight possible error locations.
if we need to correct two errors in a data unit of the same size, we need to
consider how many possibilities?

Forward Error Correction Versus
Retransmission
 Retransmission will send again the corrupted and lost
packet while detecting the error in transmission.
 It is not useful for real-time multimedia transmission
because its create an unacceptable delay in reproducing:
we need to wait until the lost or corrupted packet is resent.
 Hence Forward Error Correction scheme correct the error
or reproduce the packet immediately.

Error Detection Methods: Parity Check,
Cyclic Redundancy Check, Checksum

Error detection methods
 Error detection techniques allow detecting such errors,
 Error correction enables reconstruction of the original data
 Three methods are available:
 Parity check
 VRC – Vertical Redundancy Check ( Parity Check )

 LRC – Longitudinal Redundancy Checksum
 Check sum
 CRC – Cyclic Redundancy Checksum

Parity bits
 There are two variants of parity bits:
 even parity bit and
 odd parity bit.
 When using even parity, the parity bit is set to 1 if the number of ones in a
given set of bits (not including the parity bit) is odd, making the number of
ones in the entire set of bits (including the parity bit) even.
 If the number of one bits is already even, it is set to a 0.
 0110011 01100110
 0111011 01110111

Odd Parity
 When using odd parity, the parity bit is set to 1 if the number of ones in a
given set of bits (not including the parity bit) is even, keeping the number of
ones in the entire set of bits (including the parity bit) odd.
 And when the number of set bits is already odd, the odd parity bit is set to 0
 0110011 01100111
 0111011 01110110

Vertical Redundancy Check
• Append a single bit at the end of data block such that the
number of ones is even
• Example using even parity
0110011  01100110
0110001  01100011
• VRC is also known as Parity Check

Longitudinal Redundancy Check (LRC)
 Sender side::--
• Do the modulo addition of the given numbers (XOR)
• Attach calculated LRC answer with data.
• Send the combined data

 Receiver side::--
 Do Modulo Addition of all the numbers without including
the LRC
 Compare calculated data with LRC.
 If both are same, than it assumes no error otherwise there is
an error.

Longitudinal Redundancy Check (LRC)
• Organize data into a table and create a parity for each column

Checksum
 Sender side::--
 Do the modulo addition of the given numbers (XOR)
 Do the 1’s complement of Result
 Attach calculated 1’s complemented answer with data.
 Send the combined data

Checksum
 Receiver side::--
 Do Modulo Addition of all the numbers including the

checksum.
 Calculate 1’s complement of answer.
 If result is 0 than it assumes no error otherwise there is an
error.

Checksum

CRC – polynomial code
 Cyclic Redundancy check
 Bit stream M(x)
 Generator Polynomial G(x)
 Steps to do CRC
 Let r be the degree of G(x), append r zero to the lower order end of the
frame, so m+r bits
 Divide the lower order bit stream by G(x)
 Add the remainder to the lower order bit stream
 Transmit the data.
• Eg. Frame 1101011011 using the generator
G(x)=X4 + X + 1

 Sender side
 M(x) = 110011  x5+x4+x+1 (6 bits)
 G(x) = 11001  x4+x3+1 (5 bits, r = 4)

 4 bits of redundancy
 Form M(x)  110011 0000 Divide M(x) by G(x) to find C(x)
100001 11001 1100111001

11001 1100110000
11001
11001
11001
10000
11001
11001
1001 = C(x)
00000
Do Your SELF
 Do By LRC and Check sum
 10101001 00111001
 Do By CRC
 M(X) =100100
 G(X)=1101

Assignment
Q-1 Obtain the 4-bit CRC code word for the data bit
sequence 10011011100 using the generator polynomial
given as x^4 + x^2 +1.
Q-2 Consider 5 bit data. Identify the parity bit required.
Assume that but 5 has been changed from 1 to 0. The
receiver receives the code word and recalculates the four
new parity bit. Write the steps required by hamming code
at the sender and receiver side.

LAN Topologies, Star Topology,
Ring Topology, Bus Topology,
The Reason For Multiple
Topologies

BUS Topology
 Bus topology is a network type in which every computer
and network device is connected to single cable. When it
has exactly two endpoints, then it is called Linear Bus
topology.

Features of Bus Topology
 It transmits data only in one direction.
 Every device is connected to a single cable.
 Nodes are connected to the bus cable by drop lines and taps.
 A drop line is a connection running between the device and
the main cable.
 A tap is a connector that either splices into the main cable or
punctures the sheathing of a cable to create a contact with the
metallic core.

Limitation on number of taps and
distance between them
 As a signal travels along the backbone, some of its energy
is transformed into heat. Therefore it become weaker and
weaker as it travels farther and farther.
 This is reason there is a limit on the number of taps a bus
can support and on the distances between those taps.

Advantages of Bus Topology
 It is cost effective.
 Cable required is least compared to other network
topology.
 Used in small networks.
 It is easy to understand.
 Easy to expand joining two cables together.

Disadvantages of Bus Topology
 Cables fails then whole network fails.

 If network traffic is heavy or nodes are more the
performance of the network decreases.
 Cable has a limited length.
 It is slower than the ring topology.

RING Topology
 It is called ring topology because it forms a ring as each
computer is connected to another computer, with the last
one connected to the first. Exactly two neighbors for each
device.

Features of Ring Topology
 A number of repeaters are used for Ring topology with large number
of nodes, because if someone wants to send some data to the last
node in the ring topology with 100 nodes, then the data will have to
pass through 99 nodes to reach the 100th node. Hence to prevent data
loss repeaters are used in the network.
 The transmission is unidirectional, but it can be made bidirectional
by having 2 connections between each Network Node, it is
called Dual Ring Topology.
 In Dual Ring Topology, two ring networks are formed, and data flow
is in opposite direction in them. Also, if one ring fails, the second
ring can act as a backup, to keep the network up.
 Data is transferred in a sequential manner that is bit by bit. Data
transmitted, has to pass through each node of the network, till the
destination node.

Advantages of Ring Topology
 Transmitting network is not affected by high traffic or by

adding more nodes, as only the nodes having tokens can
transmit data.
 Cheap to install and expand.

Disadvantages of Ring Topology
 Troubleshooting is difficult in ring topology.

 Adding or deleting the computers disturbs the
network activity.
 Failure of one computer disturbs the whole network.

STAR Topology
 In this type of topology all the computers are connected to

a single hub through a cable. This hub is the central node
and all others nodes are connected to the central node.

Features of Star Topology
 Every node has its own dedicated connection to the hub.

 Hub acts as a repeater for data flow.
 Can be used with twisted pair, Optical Fibre or coaxial
cable.

Advantages of Star Topology
 Fast performance with few nodes and low network traffic.

 Hub can be upgraded easily.
 Easy to troubleshoot.
 Easy to setup and modify.
 Only that node is affected which has failed, rest of the
nodes can work smoothly.

Disadvantages of Star Topology
 Cost of installation is high.

 Expensive to use.
 If the hub fails then the whole network is stopped because all
the nodes depend on the hub.
 Performance is based on the hub that is it depends on its
capacity

MESH Topology
 It is a point-to-point connection to other nodes or devices.

All the network nodes are connected to each other. Mesh
has n(n-1)/2 physical channels to link n devices.
 There are two techniques to transmit data over the Mesh
topology, they are :
1. Routing
2. Flooding

MESH Topology: Routing
 In routing, the nodes have a routing logic, as per the

network requirements. Like routing logic to direct the data
to reach the destination using the shortest distance. Or,
routing logic which has information about the broken
links, and it avoids those node etc. We can even have
routing logic, to re-configure the failed nodes.

MESH Topology: Flooding
 In flooding, the same data is transmitted to all the network

nodes, hence no routing logic is required. The network is
robust, and the its very unlikely to lose the data. But it
leads to unwanted load over the network.

Types of Mesh Topology
 Partial Mesh Topology : In this topology some of the

systems are connected in the same fashion as mesh
topology but some devices are only connected to two or
three devices.
 Full Mesh Topology : Each and every nodes or devices
are connected to each other.

Features of Mesh Topology
 Fully connected.
 Robust.
 Not flexible.

Advantages of Mesh Topology
 Each connection can carry its own data load.

 It is robust.
 Fault is diagnosed easily.
 Provides security and privacy.

Disadvantages of Mesh Topology
 Installation and configuration is difficult.
 Cabling cost is more.
 Bulk wiring is required.

TREE Topology
 It has a root node and all other nodes are connected to it

forming a hierarchy. It is also called hierarchical topology.
It should at least have three levels to the hierarchy.

Features of Tree Topology
 Ideal if workstations are located in groups.

 Used in Wide Area Network.

Advantages of Tree Topology
 Extension of bus and star topologies.

 Expansion of nodes is possible and easy.
 Easily managed and maintained.
 Error detection is easily done.

Disadvantages of Tree Topology
 Heavily cabled.
 Costly.
 If more nodes are added maintenance is difficult.
 Central hub fails, network fails.

HYBRID Topology
 It is two different types of
topologies which is a mixture
of two or more topologies. For
example if in an office in one
department ring topology is
used and in another star
topology is used, connecting
these topologies will result in
Hybrid Topology (ring
topology and star topology).

Features of Hybrid Topology
 It is a combination of two or topologies
 Inherits the advantages and disadvantages of the
topologies included

Advantages of Hybrid Topology
 Reliable as Error detecting and trouble shooting is easy.

 Effective.
 Scalable as size can be increased easily.
 Flexible.

Disadvantages of Hybrid Topology
 Complex in design.
 Costly.

Assignment
• Assume eight devices are arranged in mesh topology.
How many cables are needed? How many ports are
needed for each device?

Multiple Access Protocols:
ALOHA, CSMA, CSMA/CD,
CSMA/CA
1/13/2017 Prepared by Ms.Poonam Yadav

Data link layer divided into two
functionality-oriented sub layers
Data link layer has a two sub-layer
– Upper layer is responsible for data link control.
1.Flow control and error control
– Lower layer is responsible for resolving access to the shared media.
1.For multiple access resolution called MAC (Media Access
Control) Layer.
•If channel is dedicated, we do not need the lower layer.

Random Access
In random access or contention methods,
–No station is superior to another station and none is assigned
the control over another.
–No station permits, or does not permit, another station to send.
At each instance, a station that has data to send uses a
procedure defined by the protocol to make a decision on
whether or not to send.
Two Feature(Method)
Random Access:
– There is no schedule time for station to transmit, transmission
is random among station.

Contention
– No rule specify which station should send next, stations compete with one
another to access the medium.
In random access method,
– Each station can has right to the medium without being controlled by any
other station.
– If more than one station tries to send, there is an access conflict
(Collision), and the frame will either destroyed or modified.
To avoids Collision, it follows some procedure that answer the following

question.
–When can the station access the medium?
–What can the station do if the medium is busy?
–How can the station can determine the success or failure of the
transmission?
–What can the station do if there is an access conflict (collision).

TYPE of Random Access Method:
ALOHA
Carrier Sense Multiple Access
Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Detection
Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Avoidance

Frames in a pure ALOHA network

Aloha
 When time-out period passes, each station waits a random
amount of time before resending its frame. The randomness
will help avoid more collisions. We call this time the backoff
time Tb.
 Time-out period is equal to the maximum possible round trip
propagation delay, which is twice the amount of time required
to send a frame between the two most widely separated
stations(2 x Tp).

Procedure for pure ALOHA protocol

Example 1
Question: The stations on a wireless ALOHA network are a
maximum of 600 km apart. If we assume that signals propagate
at 3 × 108 m/s, we find Tp = (600 × 105 ) / (3 × 108 ) = 2 ms.
Now we can find the value of TB for different values of
K.
a. For K = 1, the range is {0, 1}. The station needs to|
generate a random number with a value of 0 or 1. This
means that TB is either 0 ms (0 × 2) or 2 ms (1 × 2),
based on the outcome of the random variable.

Example 1(continued)
b. For K = 2, the range is {0, 1, 2, 3}. This means that TB

can be 0, 2, 4, or 6 ms, based on the outcome of the
random variable.
c. For K = 3, the range is {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7}. This
means that TB can be 0, 2, 4, . . . , 14 ms, based on the
outcome of the random variable.
d. We need to mention that if K > 10, it is normally set to
10.

Vulnerable time for pure ALOHA
protocol
Station A starts to send a frame at time t.
Now imagine station B has started to send its
frame after t-Tfr. This leads to collision
between the frames from station A and station
B.
On the other hand, suppose that station C
starts to send frame before time t + Tfr. Here ,
there is also a collision between frames from
station A and station C.
Pure ALOHA vulnerable time = 2 x Tfr

Example 2
Question: A pure ALOHA network transmits 200-bit frames on a
shared channel of 200 kbps. What is the requirement to make
this frame collision-free?
Solution
Average frame transmission time Tfr is 200 bits/200 kbps or 1 ms.
The vulnerable time is 2 × 1 ms = 2 ms. This means no station
should send later than 1 ms before this station starts
transmission and no station should start sending during the one
1-ms period that this station is sending.

CSMA
 CSMA requires that each station first listen to the
medium(or check state of medium) before sending.
 CSMA based on the principle “Sense Before Transmit”
or “Listen Before Talk”.
 Protocols in which stations listen for a carrier (i.e., a
transmission) and act accordingly are called carrier
sense protocols.
 It can reduce possibility of collision, but it can not
eliminate it.
 Possibility of collision still exist.
 – When station sends frame, it still takes time for the
first bit to reach every station and for every station to
send it.
 – Station may sense the medium and find it idle, the
first bit send by another station has not yet been
received.

CSMA
Space/time model of the collision in CSMA

Behavior of three persistence methods
•What should a station

can do if channel is
busy?
•What should a station
can do if channel is
idle?
•Three methods are
devised to give answer
of these question:
–1–Persistent protocol
–NonPersistent protocol
– P – Persistent protocol

Flow diagram for three persistence
methods

Three persistence methods
1–Persistent :In this method,
–If station finds the line idle it sends its frame immediately with
probability 1.
This methods has the highest chance of collision because
– Two or more station may finds the line idle and send their
frames immediately.

Non-persistent:
In this method, a station that has a frame to send sense the line.
–If the line is idle, it send immediately.
– If line is not idle, it wait a random amount of time and then
sense the line again.
It reduce the chance of collision because
–It is unlikely that two or more station will wait the same
amount of time and retry to send simultaneously.
It reduces the efficiency of network because
–Medium remain idle when there may be station with frame to
send.

P- persistent
 It is used if the channel has time slot with a slot duration equal
to or greater than the maximum propagation time.
 It combines the advantages of other two method.
–It reduce chance of collision and improves efficiency.
In this method, after the station finds the line idle it follows
these steps:
– With the probability p, the station send its frame.
– With the probability q = 1 – p, the station waits for the
beginning of the next time slot and check the line again.
If the line is idle, it goes to step 1.
If line is busy, it act as though a collision has occurred and uses
back off procedure.
CSMA/CD

Collision of the first bit in CSMA/CD
At time t1, station A has executes its persistent procedure and start sending the bits of
its frame.
At time t2, station C has not yet sensed the first bit sent by A.
 Station C executes its persistence procedure and start sending the bit in the frame.
 The collision occurs sometimes after some time after time t2.
 The station C detect a collision at time t3, the station c immediately abort
transmission.
 The station A detect a collision at time t4, when it receives the first bit of C’s frame,
it also immediately aborts transmission.

Collision and abortion in CSMA/CD

Minimum Frame Size
For CSMA/CD to work, we need a restriction on the frame size.
Before sending the last bit of frame, the sending station must
detect a collision.
–If any , and abort the transmission
–This is because the station, once the entire frame is sent, does
not keep the copy of the frame and does not detect the channel
of collision detection.
–(Frame transmission time) Tfr must be at least 2Tp (maximum
propagation time)

Example
Question: A network using CSMA/CD has a bandwidth of 10
Mbps. If the maximum propagation time (including the delays
in the devices and ignoring the time needed to send a jamming
signal, as we see later) is 25.6 μs, what is the minimum size of
the frame?
Solution: The frame transmission time is Tfr = 2 × Tp = 51.2 μs.
This means, in the worst case, a station needs to transmit for a
period of 51.2 μs to detect the collision. The minimum size of
the frame is 10 Mbps × 51.2 μs = 512 bits or 64 bytes. This is
actually the minimum size of the frame for Standard Ethernet.

Procedure
 We need to sense the channel before we start sending the frame
by using one of the persistence processes.
 In transmission and collision detection is a continuous process.
 We do not send the entire frame and then look for a collision.
 The station transmit and receive continuously and
simultaneously.
 We monitor to detect 2 condition:
– Either transmission is finished, the entire frame is transmitted.
– Collision is detect.
 Sending a short jamming signal that enforces the collision in
case other station have not yet sensed the collision.

Flow diagram for the CSMA/CD

Energy level during transmission,
idleness, or collision
We have three value : Zero, normal and abnormal.
Zero level: channel is idle.
Normal level: station has successfully capture the channel and sending the
frame.
Abnormal level: there is a collision and the level of energy is twice the normal
level.
A station that has a frame to send is needs to monitor the energy level to
determine if the channel is idle, busy or in collision mode.

CSMA/CA
The station needs to be able to receive signal while transmitting to detect a collision.
When there is no collision, the station receive one signal:
– it own signal.
When collision, the station receive two signals :
– Its own signal and the signal transmitted by second station.
Carrier sense multiple access with collision avoidance.
Wired Network :
– Received signal has almost the same energy as sent signal because either length of the
cable is short.
– This means that in collision, detected energy almost double
Wireless Network :
– Sent energy is lost in transmission
– The received signal has very little energy.
– Collision may add only 5to 10 percent of energy
– This is not useful for collision detection.

CSMA/CA was invented for this network.
Three strategies
We need to avoid collision on wireless network
because they can not be detected.
The inter-frame Space(IFS)
Contention window
Acknowledgment.

Timing in CSMA/CA
Inter-Frame Space (IFS)

•When the channel is found idle, the station does not send immediately.
•It wait for period of time called IFS.
•It Also used to prioritize station or frame type.
•Ex : station that assigned a shortest IFS has higher priority.

Timing in CSMA/CA(Continue)
Contention Window
• It means amount of time divided in to slots.
• The station that is ready to send chooses a random number of
slots as it wait time.
• The number of slot in window changes according to the binary
exponential.
Acknowledgement
• With all the precautions, there still may be a collision resulting
in destroyed data.
• The positive acknowledgement and the time-out timer can help
guarantee that the receiver has received the frame.

Note
In CSMA/CA, the IFS can also be used to

define the priority of a station or a frame.
12.131
Note
In CSMA/CA, if the station finds the

channel busy, it does not restart the timer of
the contention window;
it stops the timer and restarts it when the
channel becomes idle.
12.132
Flow diagram for CSMA/CA

Token Bus, Token Ring, FDDI,
DQDB

Controlled Access
In controlled Access, the stations consult one another to find
which station has the right to send.
A station cannot send unless it has been authorized by other
station.
3 Controlled Access Methods are there:
Reservation
Polling
Token Passing

Token Passing
In token passing method, stations in network are organized in a logical ring. (means
each station has predecessor and successor)
In this method, right to access the channel is done through special packet called a
Token which circulates in the ring.
When station has some data to send, it waits until it receives the token from its
predecessor. It then holds the token and send the data when station has no more data
to send, it releases the token and passes it to the next station in the ring.
Token Management is need for this method.

Station must be limited in time they can have possession to token.
Token must be monitored to ensure it has not been lost or destroyed. (Example if
station holding token fails, then token will disappear from the network)
Assigning priorities to station according to type of data being transmitted is also the
function of token management.

Token Passing (Continue)
Protocols that follow token passing methods are :
Token bus : IEEE standard 802.4
Token ring : IEEE standard 802.5
Fibre Distributed Data Interface (FDDI)
Distributed Queue Dual Bus(DQDB): IEEE
standard 802.6

Token bus : IEEE standard
802.4
Local area networks have a direct application in factory automation and
process control, where the nodes are computers controlling the
manufacturing process.
In this type of applications, real time processing with minimum delay is
needed. Processing must occur at the same speed as the objects moving
along the assembly line.
Ethernet is not suitable protocol for this purpose because the number of
collisions is not predictable and the delay in sending data from control
centre t the computers along the assembly line is not fixed value.
Token bus networks offer good support for factory automation and
process control applications that require real time processing .
Token bus(IEEE 802.4) combines features of Ethernet and Token Ring. It
combines the physical configuration of Ethernet( a bus topology) and the
collision-free (predictable delay) feature of Token Ring.

802.4(Continue)
Token bus is a physical bus that operates as a logical ring using tokens.
In figure: the stations are logically organized into a ring and the token
passes among them.
A station wanting to send something must wait for the token to arrive.
However, the stations must communicate via a common bus as in an
Ethernet.
Five stations A,B,C,D,E and F connected to bus. If the logical order is A-
F-E-D-C-B, then A starts by sending token to F along the bus. As with
Ethernet, each station is capable of receiving it, but the token’s destination
address specifies which station it goes to.
When F receives the token, it has permission to send a frame. If it has no
frame, it sends token to E. Similarly, E sends either a token to C or a data
frame, and so on.

802.4(Continue)
A station receives a token from its predecessor and sends a token to its
successor.
Difference between token bus and token ring is that token bus stations must
know their predecessor and successor.
They must know their successor so that they know which destination address
to put in the token.
The token bus specifies signal to be sent over a baseband cable or a broadband
cable, like one that is used for cable television.
Token bus is limited to factory automation and process control and has no
commercial application in data communication.

Physically, it is a Bus network. Logically, it is a Ring
network
Stations are organized as a circular doubly-linked list
A distributed polling algorithm is used to avoid bus
contention
Token - Right of access
Token Holder (The station receiving the token)
Transmit one or more MAC-frame
Poll other stations
Receive responses
Non-Token Holder
 Listen to the channel
Respond to a poll
Send Acknowledgement

Token Passing in a Token Bus Network
Once received the token, the station either starts to transmit or passes
the token to the next station within one response window.
Token must be released if no data / control frame is required to be
transmitted. Token control frame is destinated for the successor.

Token Passing in a Token Bus Network
Token can be held maximum up to th – Token Holding Time.

This value is set at the system initialization time by the network
management process.
Frame priority must be handled within the station itself.

IEEE 802.5 and Token Ring
Token ring :: a number of stations connected by transmission
links in a ring topology. Information flows in one direction along
the ring from source to destination and back to source.
Medium access control is provided by a small frame, the token,

that circulates around the ring when all stations are idle. Only the
station possessing the token is allowed to transmit at any given
time.
If a station want to sent to another station on the ring, the frame
must go through all the intermediate interfaces. Ring contention is
handled through a token that circulates past all the stations. The
specific claiming tokens and sending frames are involved.

Token Ring Operation
When a station wishes to transmit, it must wait for token to
pass by and seize the token.
One approach: change one bit in token which
transforms it into a “start-of-frame sequence” and
appends frame for transmission.
Second approach: station claims token by removing it
from the ring.
Frame circles the ring and is removed by the transmitting
station.
Each station interrogates passing frame, if destined for
station, it copies the frame into local buffer. {Normally, there
is a one bit delay as the frame passes through a station.}
Token passing mechanism is used by token ring in which
each stations may transmit only during its turn and may
send only one frame during each turn.
Token Ring Network
with star topology
Wiring center
D
C

Token Ring
Under light load – delay is added due to waiting for the
token.
Under heavy load – ring is “round-robin”
The ring must be long enough to hold the complete token.
Advantages – fair access
Disadvantages – ring is single point of failure, added
issues due to token maintenance.

Token Maintenance Issues
What can go wrong?
Loss of token (no token circulating)
Duplication of token (forgeries or mistakes)
The need to designate one station as the active ring monitor.
Persistently circulating frame
Deal with active monitor going down.

Fiber Distributed Data Interface
(FDDI)
FDDI for a 100 Mbps fibre optic LAN was developed during
the mid-1980s by a subcommittee of ANSI and was completed
in 1990.
As LANs based on the IEEE 802 standards reached capacity,
optical fibre LANs based on the FDDI standard became an
alternative growth path.
It is used to provide high-speed backbone connections
between distributed LANs. FDDI is used for normal LANs that
have a large number of users or need to operate at very high
speed.

Fiber Distributed Data Interface (FDDI)
The primary transmission medium used for FDDI is optical

fiber, and the standard defines two types: Single mode
fiber(SMF) and multimode fiber(MMF).
Single mode fiber can deliver connectivity over longer
distances, with higher performance than MMF.
It is used, consequently for connections between buildings or
over greater geographical areas.
Multimode fiber is usually used to connect devices within a
building or a small geographically contained area.
FDDI uses redundancy to overcome failures.

FDDI has two rings-one that is
used to send data when
everything is working correctly,
and another that is used only
when the first ring fails.
The rings in an FDDI network

are called counter rotating
because data flows around the
second ring opposite of the
direction data flown around the
main ring.

Hardware in the stations adjacent to a failure
detect the disconnection and reconfigure so
they loop incoming bits back along the reverse
path. Thus the failed station is removed and
the remaining stations are connected to a
contiguous ring. The process of reconfiguring
to avoid a failure is called self healing, and
FDDI is known as self-healing network.
In FDDI one ring is used to transmit data.

When failure occurs that breaks the ring,
stations adjacent to the failure automatically
reconfigure using the second ring to bypass
the failure.

Distributed Queue Dual Bus(DQDB):IEEE Standard 802.6
LANs are usually restricted to a single site, such as a building or a floor or

room in a building. MAN expands network coverage to include several
buildings or sites within a limited area.
IEEE standard 802.6 defines the DQDB which resembles a LAN standard.
It is designed to be used in MAN.
It uses a dual bus configuration. Each device in the system connects to
two backbone links. Access to these links is granted not by contention or
token passing but by mechanism called distributed queues.
For the physical layer of DQDB, this protocol specifies a dual bus
topology to carry data in forward and reverse directions.
The forward direction bus carries data while the reverse direction handles
queuing and control information.

Distributed Queue Dual Bus(DQDB):IEEE
Standard 802.6(Continue)
DQDB consists of two unidirectional buses(cables) to which all
computers are connected as shown in the figure. Each bus has a head-
end, a device that initiates transmission activity.
Each bus connects to the stations directly through input and output
ports; no drops lines are used.
To send data on one bus, a station must use the other bus to make a
reservation.

Multiplexing

Multiplexing
 Many to one/one to many
 It is the set of techniques that allows the simultaneous
transmission of multiple signals across a single data link.
 Multiplexing is done using a device called Multiplexer (MUX)
that combine n input lines to generate one output line i.e. (many
to one).
 At the receiving end a device called Demultiplexer (DEMUX)
is used that separate signal into its component signals i.e. one
input and several outputs (one to many).

Multiplexing

Multiplexing vs. No Multiplexing

Types of Multiplexing

Frequency Division Multiplexing
 It is an analog technique.
 Signals of different frequencies are combined into a composite
signal and is transmitted on the single link.
 Bandwidth of a link should be greater than the combined
bandwidths of the various channels.
 Each signal is having different frequency.
 Channels are separated by the strips of unused bandwidth
called Guard Bands (to prevent overlapping).

FDM

Applications of FDM
 FDM is used for FM & AM radio broadcasting.
 AM frequency = 530 to 1700 kHz.
 FM frequency = 88 to 108 MHz.
 FDM is used in television broadcasting.
 First generation cellular telephone also uses FDM.

FDM, Time Domain

Multiplexing, Frequency Domain

Demultiplexing, Time Domain

Demultiplexing, Frequency Domain

Question
Five channels, each with 100 KHz bandwidth are to
be multiplexed together. What is the minimum
bandwidth of the link if there is a need for a guard
band of 10 kHz between the channels to prevent
interference?
Solution: No of guard band= No of channel-1 = 4
5 x 100k + 4 x 10k = 540kHz

Wave Division Multiplexing
 WDM is an analog multiplexing technique.
 Working is same as FDM.
 In WDM different signals are optical or light signals that are transmitted
through optical fiber.
 Various light waves from different sources are combined to form a
composite light signal that is transmitted across the channel to the receiver.
 At the receiver side, this composite light signal is broken into different light
waves by Demultiplexer.
 This Combining and the Splitting of light waves is done by using a PRISM.
Prism bends beam of light based on the angle of incidence and the
frequency of light wave.

Wave Division Multiplexing…

Time Division Multiplexing
 It is the digital multiplexing technique.
 Channel/Link is not divided on the basis of frequency but on
the basis of time.
 Total time available in the channel is divided between several
users.
 Each user is allotted a particular time interval called time slot
or slice.
 In TDM the data rate capacity of the transmission medium
should be greater than the data rate required by sending of
receiving Devices.

TDM

Types of TDM
 Synchronous TDM
 Asynchronous TDM

Synchronous TDM
 Each device is given same Time Slot to transmit the data over the link,
whether the device has any data to transmit or not.
 Each device places its data onto the link when its Time Slot arrives, each
device is given the possession of line turn by turn.
 If any device does not have data to send then its time slot remains empty.
 Time slots are organized into Frames and each frame consists of one or
more time slots.
 If there are n sending devices there will be n slots in frame.

Synchronous TDM

Multiplexing Process in STDM
 In STDM every device is given opportunity to transmit a
specific amount of data onto the link.
 Each device gets its turn in fixed order and for fixed amount of
time = INTERLEAVING.
 Interleaving is done by a character (one byte).
 Each frame consist of four slots as there are four input devices.
 Slots of some devices go empty if they do not have any data to
send.

TDM, Multiplexing

TDM, Demultiplexing

Disadvantages of STDM
 The channel capacity cannot be fully utilized. Some of the slots
go empty in certain frames.

Asynchronous TDM
 Also known as Statistical Time Division multiplexing.
 In this time slots are not Fixed i.e. slots are Flexible.
 Total speed of the input lines can be greater than the capacity of
the path.
 In ASTDM we have n input lines and m slots i.e. m less than n
(m<n).
 Slots are not predefined rather slots are allocated to any of the
device that has data to send.

Asynchronous TDM

Frames and Addresses
a. Only three lines sending data

Frames and Addresses
b. Only four lines sending data

Question
Q. Four channels are multiplexed using TDM. If each channel send 100byte/s and
we multiplex 1 byte per channel, show the frame traveling on the link, the size
of the frame, duration of the frame, the frame rate and bit rate of the link.
Solution:
 Size of frame is 4 bytes(No of slots for each channel having 1 byte in frame) i.e.
32 bits.
 100 byte/s hence frame carries 1 byte from each channel the frame rate must be 100
frames per second.
Each channel Frame rate = (100 byte/s(byte rate))/ each channel size in frame
 Duration of frame= 1/each channel frame rate i.e. Duration of frame is 1/100 s.
 Overall frame is 32 bits hence Bit rate = frame rate x frame size i.e. 100 x 32 is
3200 bps.
 Actual bit rate of channel is 100byte/s hence in bps byte will get convert into 1 byte-
8bit i.e. 100 x 8 = 800bps.
Note: Hence multiplexed data are four time faster than normal link data.

Question
Q. Six channels are multiplexed using TDM. If each channel send 80byte/s and we
multiplex 3 byte per channel, show the frame traveling on the link, the size of
the frame, duration of the frame, the frame rate and bit rate of the link.
Solution:
 Size of frame is 18 bytes(No of slots for each channel having 3 byte in frame) i.e.
144 bits.
 80 byte/s hence frame carries 18 byte from each channel the frame rate must be
26.66 frames per second.
Each channel Frame rate = (80 byte/s(byte rate))/3 each channel size in frame
 Duration of frame= 1/each channel frame rate i.e. Duration of frame is 1/26.6 s=.
 Overall frame is 144 bits hence Bit rate = frame rate x frame size i.e. 26.6 x 144 is
3830.4 bps.
 Actual bit rate of channel is 100byte/s hence in bps byte will get convert into 1 byte-
8bit i.e. 80 x 8 = 640bps.

Switching: Circuit,
Message and Packet

Circuit Switching
 Circuit switching creating a dedicated physical circuit between
the sending and receiving nodes. This acts as a straight channel
on which to send data back and forth without interruption,
similar to a telephone call between two parties.
 The transmission channel remains in the service until the two
nodes disconnect.
 The path is a connected sequence of links between network
nodes.
 On each physical link, a logical channel is dedicated to the
connection.

Three Phase of Circuit Switching
 Communication via circuit switching
involves three phase:
Phase 1: Circuit establishment:
 Before any signals can be transmitted, an
end to end (station to station) circuit must
be established.
 Station A sends request to node 4,
requesting a connection to station E.
 The link from A to 4 is a dedicated line, so
that part of the connection already exists.
 Node 4 must find the next leg in a route
leading to node 6 based on routing
information and measures of availability
and perhaps cost.

 Node 4 selects the link to node 5, allocates a free channel(using
FDM or TDM) on that link and sends a message requesting
connection to E.
 So far, a dedicated path has been established from A through 4
to 5. Because a number of stations may attach to 4, it must be
able to establish internal paths from multiple stations to
multiple nodes.
 The remainder of the process proceeds similarly.
 Node 5 dedicates a channel to node 6 and internally ties that
channel to the channel from node 4. Node 6 completes the
connection to E.
 In completing the connection, a test is made to determine If E
is busy or is prepared to accept the connection.

Phase 2: Data Transfer:
 Information can now be transmitted from A through the
network to E.
 The data may be analog or digital, depending on the nature of
the network.
 The path is A-4 link, internal switching through 4; 4-5 channel,
internal switching through 5, 5-6 channel, internal switching
through 6; 6-E link.
 Generally the connection is full duplex.

Phase 3:Circuit Disconnect:
 After some period of data transfer ; the connection is
terminated usually by the actions of one of the two stations.
 Signal must be propagated to nodes 4,5 and 6 to de-allocate the
dedicated resources.

Characteristics of Circuit Switching
Channel capacity must be reserved between each pair of
nodes in the path and each node must have available
internal switching capacity to handle the request
connection.
Switches must have the intelligence to make these
allocations and to device a route through the network.
Circuit switching was developed to handle voice traffic
but is now also used for data traffic.
Example: Public telephone network, Private Branch
Exchange(PBX) used to interconnect telephones within a
building or office.

Message Switching
 Message switching uses a store-and-forward communication
method to transmit data from the sending to the receiving node.
 The data is sent from one node to another, which stores it
temporarily until a route towards the data’s final destination
becomes available.
 Several nodes along the route store and forward the data until it
reaches the destination node.
Example: email sent on an enterprise network with file servers
acting as “post offices”. The message goes from one post
offices to the next until it reaches the intended recipient.

Packet Switching
 Circuit switching designed for voice
 Resources dedicated to a particular call
 Much of the time a data connection is idle
 Data rate is fixed
 Both ends must operate at the same rate

Basic Operation
 Data transmitted in small packets

 Typically 1000 octets
 Longer messages split into series of packets
 Each packet contains a portion of user data plus some
control info
 Control info
 Routing (addressing) info
 Packets are received, stored briefly (buffered) and past on to
the next node
 Store and forward

Advantages
 Line efficiency
 Single node to node link can be shared by many packets over time
 Packets queued and transmitted as fast as possible
 Data rate conversion
 Each station connects to the local node at its own speed
 Nodes buffer data if required to equalize rates
 Packets are accepted even when network is busy
 Delivery may slow down
 Priorities can be used

Switching Technique
 Station breaks long message into packets
 Packets sent one at a time to the network
 Packets handled in two ways
 Datagram
 Virtual circuit

Datagram
 Each packet treated independently
 Packets can take any practical route
 Packets may arrive out of order
 Packets may go missing
 Up to receiver to re-order packets and recover from missing
packets

Datagram Diagram

Virtual Circuit
 Preplanned route established before any packets sent
 Call request and call accept packets establish connection
(handshake)
 Each packet contains a virtual circuit identifier instead of
destination address
 No routing decisions required for each packet
 Clear request to drop circuit
 Not a dedicated path

Virtual Circuit Diagram

Virtual Circuits v Datagram
 Virtual circuits
 Network can provide sequencing and error control
 Packets are forwarded more quickly
No routing decisions to make

 Less reliable
 Loss of a node looses all circuits through that node
 Datagram
 No call setup phase
 Better if few packets
 More flexible
 Routing can be used to avoid congested parts of the
network

11/7/2019 Prepared by Mrs - Poonam Yadav

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11/7/2019 Prepared by Mrs.Poonam Yadav

11/7/2019 Prepared by Mrs.Poonam Yadav

11/7/2019 Prepared by Mrs.Poonam Yadav

11/7/2019 Prepared by Mrs.Poonam Yadav

11/7/2019 Prepared by Mrs.Poonam Yadav

11/7/2019 Prepared by Mrs.Poonam Yadav

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11/7/2019 Prepared by Mrs.Poonam Yadav

11/7/2019 Prepared by Mrs.Poonam Yadav

 A center conductor, although usually solid copper wire, sometimes is made of

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11/7/2019 Prepared by Mrs.Poonam Yadav

In almost every way, fiber-optic

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•Very high frequencies microwave

•Microwaves are used for unicast

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Burst Error: A burst error means that 2 or more bits in the

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 Error correction enables reconstruction of the original data

 Three methods are available:

 VRC – Vertical Redundancy Check ( Parity Check )

 CRC – Cyclic Redundancy Checksum

11/7/2019 Prepared by Mrs.Poonam Yadav

 There are two variants of parity bits:

 even parity bit and

 odd parity bit.

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• Example using even parity

• VRC is also known as Parity Check

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• Do the modulo addition of the given numbers (XOR)

• Attach calculated LRC answer with data.

• Send the combined data

11/7/2019 Prepared by Mrs.Poonam Yadav

 Do Modulo Addition of all the numbers without including

 Compare calculated data with LRC.

 If both are same, than it assumes no error otherwise there is